The thalamus is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals, to the cerebral cortex and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System P...Shaista Jabeen
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCrrAABI7QDRCJ1yMrQCip_w/videos
https://www.facebook.com/ShaistaJabeeen/
https://www.facebook.com/Human-Physiology-Lectures-100702741804409/
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System Physiology
Introduction to nervous system
Divisions of Nervous System
Nervous System Physiology
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Short Notes
ppt pdf
Anatomical localisation of function is a fundamental principle in the neurosciences. This presentation highlights the basics neuroanatomy and correlate major brain structure with their functions.
The thalamus is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals, to the cerebral cortex and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System P...Shaista Jabeen
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCrrAABI7QDRCJ1yMrQCip_w/videos
https://www.facebook.com/ShaistaJabeeen/
https://www.facebook.com/Human-Physiology-Lectures-100702741804409/
Introduction to nervous system, Divisions of Nervous System, Nervous System Physiology
Introduction to nervous system
Divisions of Nervous System
Nervous System Physiology
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Short Notes
ppt pdf
Anatomical localisation of function is a fundamental principle in the neurosciences. This presentation highlights the basics neuroanatomy and correlate major brain structure with their functions.
Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use.It seems that as much as we do remember, we forget even more. Forgetting isn’t really all that bad, and is in actuality, a pretty natural phenomenon. Imagine if you remembered every minute detail of every minute or every hour, of every day during your entire life, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant
Dushyant Verma Maharani Bagh - What is the Memory Capacity of a Human Brain.pptxdushyantverma25
Dushyant Verma Southern Avenue - The human brain is often referred to as the most complex structure in the known universe. One of the key factors that determine the memory capacity of the brain is the number of neurons. Dushyant Verma Shillong says, The human brain contains an estimated 86 billion neurons, each of which can form thousands of connections with other neurons. This vast network of neurons and synapses is thought to be responsible for the brain's ability to store and retrieve information.
Memory, Its Components, Its Types, Seven Sins of Memory, Strategies to Improv...Muhammad Shaheer
Today's topic is Memory, Its Components, How Information Becomes Memory, Its Types; wrt Information Research Perspectives, Seven Sins of Memory, Strategies to Improve Memory, Memory in Plants with examples....
These slides contain a presentation about Memory chapter of book Understanding Psychology. It contains slides on memory as well as types of memory such as short term and long term memory and also working memory. This presentation was given in NUML Islamabad.
MEMORY
By JOYSRI ROY
M.SC APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
SEMESTER 1
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
Definition
Our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain.It is the sum total of what we remember, and gives us the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as to build relationships.
In more Physiological and neurological term, memory is, at its simplest , a set of encoded neural connections in the brain.
MEMORY PROCESS
1)Encoding
2)Storage
3)Retrieval
NEURO-BIOLOGY OF ENCODING
Process of laying down a memory begin with attention, which is regulated by thalamus and fontal lobe, in which a memorable event causes neurons to fire more frequently making the experience more intense and increasing the likelihood that the event is encoded as a memory. Emotion increases attention in the amygdala. The perceived sensation are decoded in the various sensory areas of the cortex. Then combined in the hippocampus into one single experience. Hippocampus analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long- term memory.
TYPES OF MEMORY
1)Sensory memory
2)Short term memory
3) Long term memory
MODELS OF MEMORY
1) ALLEN D. BADDELEY’S MODEL
2)ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MODEL (1968)
3)LEVELS OF PROCESSING ( CRAIK AND LOCKHART)
ZEIGARNIK EFFECT
Bluma Zeigarnik , a Russian Psychologist, compared memory for tasks that were successfully completed and those which were not. She interpreted the work and did not allow them to finish it. Interrupted tasks were remembered more frequently than those which were completed.
Dutta and Kanungo gave a new interpretations to this effect.
The intensity of emotiom arousal by the completed tasks or the interrupted task is the critical factor. Any aivity that gives to strong emotion, be it pleasant or unpleasant , is remembered better than ordinary everyday actions
METHODS OF STUDYING MEMORY
1)FREE RECALL
2)RECOGNITION
3)PRIMIMG
FORGETTING
1)TRACE DECAY THEORY
2)DISPLACEMENT FROM STM
3)LACK OF CONSOLIDATION
4)RETRIEVAL FAILURE
5)INTERFERENCE THEORY
6)AMNESIA
TYPES OF MNEMONIC DEVICES
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Novas diretrizes da OMS para os cuidados perinatais de mais qualidade
Neurophysiology of memory.pptx
1. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
OF MEMORY
o Dr. Sujoy Kabiraj (1stYear Neuromedicine Resident, BIN)
o Chairperson: Dr. Adreesh Mukherjee, Assistant Professor, BIN
2. INTRODUCTION
Memory is essential to all our
lives.Without a memory of the
past, we cannot operate in the
present or think about the
future. We would not be able to
remember what we did
yesterday, what we have done
today or what we plan to do
tomorrow. Without memory,
we could not learn anything.
Memory is involved in
processing vast amounts of
information.This information
takes many different forms, e.g.
images, sounds or meaning.
3. DEFINITION
Memory is the faculty of the brain by which data or information is
encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of
information over time for the purpose of influencing future
action. If past events could not be remembered, it would be
impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to
develop.
Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00403. PMC 3485580. PMID 23125838
4. INFORMATION
UNIT
It is bit.
A bit is the simplest form of sensory experience i.e. figure, sound,
touch, or smell
All sensory systems send information to brain at 50bit/sec.
E.g. during reading 40 bits/sec, during mental calculation 12
bits/sec, and during counting 3 bits/sec.
Average rate of flow of information is 20 bits/sec.
For learning a language about 40-50 millions bits should be stored
in memory.
To store 1 bit, 10 neurons are required.
8. SENSORY
MEMORY
Sensory memory holds information, derived from the senses, less
than one second after an item is perceived.
The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like
with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the
example of sensory memory.
9. TYPESOF
SENSORY
MEMORY
Three types of sensory memories exist.
Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information, a
type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image that has been
perceived for a small duration.
Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory
information, also a sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that
have been perceived for short durations.
Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a
database for touch stimuli.
ISBN 978-0-205-68557-8. OCLC 268547522
10. MECANISM
OFACTION
Stimulation of reverberating circuits – repeated activation of
neurons.
Synaptic sensitization – if sensory experience coupled with painful
stimuli.
Posttetanic potentiation – multiple stimuli at presynaptic terminal
→↑ Ca content in presynaptic terminal →↑ release of
neurotransmitters.
12. SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Short-term memory is also known as working memory.
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to
a minute without rehearsal.
Its capacity, however, is very limited.
13. SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Duration: (min to hours)
Capacity – Small bits of informations – Miller’s
magical number: 7±2 chunks of information
Entry into storage: verbalization (describing the items in
words)
Recall or access to storage: rapid
Mechanism: Made by formation of temporary memory traces
doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922. PMID 11515286. S2CID 8739159.
14. SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Memory trace:
Is a newly developed pathway or signal transmission resulting
from facilitation of new synapses → creation of new circuits
in the brain
This occurs by
Long term potentiation of synapses
Changes in physical properties of postsynaptic
membrane → ↑ sensitivity to chemical transmitters
Mechanism of forgetting: New information replaces old
16. A simplified depiction
(adapted from the
multicomponent
working memory
modelby Baddeley,
2010) as implicated in
the brain.ACC,
Anterior cingulate
cortex.
17. LONG-TERM
MEMORY
The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally
has a strictly limited capacity and duration
By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities
of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a
whole life span).
Its capacity is immeasurable.
18. LONG-TERM
MEMORY
Duration: (hours to years )
Entry into storage:
Stimulation of the reward or punishment systems.
Repeated practice or rehearsal of the experience.
Recall or access to storage: slow
19. MECHANISM
Made by formation of memory engrams (long- lasting memory
traces) formed by structural changes in presynaptic terminals
Memory engrams made up by;
Increase in number of vesicles
Increase in number of presynaptic terminals
Increase in release sites of chemical transmitters
Generation of new receptor sites
Long term potentiation
Engrams remain for long time up to several years
Formation of new engrams requires protein synthesis
21. PERMANENT
MEMORY
Duration: (permanent)
Capacity –Very large
Entry into storage: very frequent practice
Recall or access to storage: very rapid (recall not affected by brain
injury (like name, write, and read)
Mechanism:Advanced stage of long-term(permanent engrams)
Mechanism of forgetting :No forgetting
22. PHYSIOLOGY
OF MEMORY
Neurons are the basic means of information transfer within the
nervous system.
Information in the form of a stimulus is detected by a specific type of
neuron (sensory neuron).
The information is then passed to an adjacent neuron (interconnecting
neuron) and so on till it gets to where it’s going in the brain.
It is an electro-chemical process that allows this to happen.
23.
24. TYPESOF
NEURONS
Sensory Neurons: These detect the stimulus from each of the
senses and communicate the information to the interconnecting
neurons.
Interconnecting Neurons: These transfer information
throughout the nervous system and also connect to the motor
neurons.
Motor Neurons: These connect to and activate muscle tissue.
25. HOW
INFORMATION
IS MOVED
All stimulus or nerve messages are picked up by the dendrites
protruding from the cell body.
When the stimulus is strong enough, the cell body fires an
electrical impulse.
An electrical impulse travels down the axon or “outgoing branch”.
Then the axon terminals and buds at the end are stimulated to
release chemicals called neurotransmitters (tiny molecules that
send specific messages).
27. HOW
INFORMATION
IS MOVED
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify
and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell.
The dendrites or “incoming branches” of other neurons pick up
these chemicals as they cross the synapse.
The synapse is the space between the buds of one neuron and
dendrites of the adjacent neuron.
What it comes down to is brain cells, or neurons, communicating
with each other through electro-chemical pathways.
29. HOW BRAIN
HELP IN
MEMORIZATION
Memory formation and storage involves many parts of the brain at
the same time.
The brain is made up of four main regions which include the
cerebrum, the cerebellum, the limbic system, and the brain stem.
30. HOW BRAIN
HELP IN
MEMORIZATION
The cerebrum is the largest, most recently evolved and most
developed part of the brain and is made up of two hemispheres
(the right and left) and four types of lobes (frontal, occipital,
temporal, and parietal).
The frontal lobes are involved in thinking, organization,
short-term memory and problem-solving.
The occipital lobes process images a person sees and links
them with ones that have been stored in the memory.
The temporal lobes process sensory information such as
temperature, touch, smell, taste and sound and are also
involved in the storage of memories.
The parietal lobes also process sensory information.
The outermost layer of the cerebrum, the cerebral cortex, plays a
role in higher brain functions such as memory and language.
31. FORMING,
STORING
AND
RECALLING
MEMORIES
Memories are stored within groups of interconnected nerve cells
referred to as assemblies that are triggered together on exposure
to a stimulus, such as the smell of a certain food or hearing a
friend’s voice.
The greater the number of nerve cells that fire simultaneously, the
stronger the interconnection within an assembly.
How active such cells are within an assembly is thought to
determine the memory experienced, but researchers are still
investigating this process.
https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-system/Memory
33. MEMORY
CONSOLIDATION
it is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its
initial acquisition.
A memory trace is a change in the nervous system caused by
memorizing something.
Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes.The
first, synaptic consolidation, which is thought to correspond
to late-phase long-term potentiation.
34. MEMORY
CONSOLIDATION
The second process is systems consolidation, occurring on a
much larger scale in the brain, rendering hippocampus-
dependent memories independent of the hippocampus over a
period of weeks to years.
Recently, a third process has become the focus of
research, reconsolidation, in which previously consolidated
memories can be made labile again through reactivation of the
memory trace.
35. MEMORY
ENCODING
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory
input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can
cope with, so that it can be stored.
Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different
currency when you travel from one country to another. For
example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is
changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic
processing).
36. MEMORY
ENCODING
There are three main ways in which information
can be encoded (changed):
1.Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked
up in the phone book? If you can see it then you are using visual coding,
but if you are repeating it to yourself you are using acoustic coding (by
sound).
37. MEMORY
STORAGE
This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the
information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how
much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of
information is held.
The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There
has been a significant amount of research regarding the differences
between ShortTerm Memory (STM ) and LongTerm Memory (LTM).
39. MEMORY
RETRIEVAL
This refers to getting information out storage. If we can’t
remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve
it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the
differences between STM and LTM become very clear.
STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group
of participants are given a list of words to remember, and then
asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through
the list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the
information.
LTM is stored and retrieved by association. This is why you can
remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the room
where you first thought about it.
Editor's Notes
It is often interpreted to argue that the number of objects an average human can hold in short-term memory is 7 ± 2. This has occasionally been referred to as Miller's law
Aplastic nervous system requires the ability not only to acquire and store but also to forget. Here, we report that musashi (msi-1) is necessary for time dependent memory loss in C. elegans. Tissue specific rescue demonstrates that MSI-1 function is necessary in the AVA interneuron. Using RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation (IP), we found that MSI-1 binds to mRNAs of three subunits of the Arp2/3 actin branching regulator complex in vivo and downregulates ARX-1, ARX-2, and ARX-3 translation upon associative learning. The role of msi-1 in forgetting is also reflected by the persistence of learning-induced GLR-1 synaptic size increase in msi-1 mutants. We demonstrate that memory length is regulated cooperatively through the activation of adducin (add-1) and by the inhibitory effect of msi-1.Thus, aGLR-1/MSI-1/Arp2/3pathwayinduces forgetting and represents a novel mechanism of memory decay by linking translational control to the structure of the actin cytoskeleton in neurons.
It is often interpreted to argue that the number of objects an average human can hold in short-term memory is 7 ± 2. This has occasionally been referred to as Miller's law
The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
The three main stores are the sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
in which the central executive assumes the role to exert control and oversee the manipulation of incoming information for intended execution.
Immediate memory Dorsolateral frontal cortex
Recent or Short term memory Hippocampus or medial temporal lobe
Remote or Long term memory Neocortex
Semantic memory Anterior & Inferior temporal lobe
Procedural memory Basal ganglia & Cerebellum