Nerve Growth Factor
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The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against developing mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
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NERVE GROWTH FACTORS, NEUROTROPHINS
This document discusses various neurotrophic factors and cytokines. It describes neurotrophins like nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin 3 and 4/5 that promote nerve growth, survival and neuronal plasticity through Trk and p75 receptors. Other growth factors discussed are leukemia inhibitory factor, insulin-like growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor. Cytokines are small protein molecules that regulate the immune response through local and systemic effects.
Insulin family (IGF-I & IGF-II )Girja Pd. Patel
The document discusses insulin-like growth factors IGF-I and IGF-II. It notes that IGF-I and IGF-II are produced primarily in the liver in response to growth hormone stimulation. IGF-I plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults, while IGF-II is important for growth during gestation. Both IGF-I and IGF-II act through autocrine and paracrine signaling pathways to stimulate cellular growth and proliferation through binding to IGF receptors and activating intracellular signaling cascades.
Nerve growth factor (NGF) Signalling pathways.
Nerve growth factor is a small protein that promotes the growth, maintenance, and survival of neurons. It was discovered in 1956 by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen. NGF signals through two pathways, the TrkA pathway which promotes cell survival and the p75 pathway which can promote both survival and apoptosis. NGF production decreases in conditions like Alzheimer's disease, impairing the ability to form new neural connections.
Second messengers cAMP and cGMP
Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules that are released within cells in response to extracellular first messengers like hormones and neurotransmitters. They amplify and propagate intracellular signals. Examples include cyclic AMP (cAMP), cyclic GMP (cGMP), inositol trisphosphate, and calcium. cAMP and cGMP are produced from ATP and GTP by adenylate and guanylate cyclases, respectively. They activate downstream effector proteins like protein kinase A and G. This leads to phosphorylation of various target proteins and physiological responses like metabolism, gene expression, cell survival, proliferation and apoptosis. The document discusses the mechanisms, targets, functions and therapeutic applications of cAMP and cGMP second messenger systems in detail.
INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR
This document summarizes research on growth factors that can influence orthodontic treatment outcomes. It focuses on insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), describing its actions in bone, muscle, and cartilage and how it modulates craniofacial growth. IGF-1 stimulates growth plate bone formation and increases muscle mass, while muscle hypertrophy in turn impacts craniofacial bone morphology. The document also discusses delivering IGF-1 to targeted tissues to influence their growth and craniofacial development.
Insulin and its mechanism of action
Insulin is a peptide hormone, produced by beta cells of the pancreas, and is central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, skeletal muscles, and fat tissue to absorb glucose from the blood. In the liver and skeletal muscles, glucose is stored as glycogen, and in fat cells (adipocytes) it is stored as triglycerides.
Mechanism of steroid hormone action
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble chemical messengers derived from cholesterol that transport signals between cells. They are synthesized and immediately released near their target cells. Since they are lipid-soluble, steroid hormones diffuse freely into cells and are carried in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins. Within target cells, steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that act as transcription factors to increase or decrease the expression of specific genes and thereby influence various physiological processes like carbohydrate regulation, mineral balance, and reproductive functions.
Secondary messengers system
This document discusses second messengers, which are intracellular molecules that amplify and spread signals from receptors on the cell surface. It describes four main classes of second messengers - cyclic nucleotides, membrane lipid derivatives, calcium ions, and gases like nitric oxide. Specifically, it examines the cAMP, cGMP, IP3/DAG, and calcium-mediated signaling pathways, outlining the ligands, effectors, and downstream effects of each messenger. It also provides details on nitric oxide and calcium signaling within cells.
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NERVE GROWTH FACTORS, NEUROTROPHINS
This document discusses various neurotrophic factors and cytokines. It describes neurotrophins like nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin 3 and 4/5 that promote nerve growth, survival and neuronal plasticity through Trk and p75 receptors. Other growth factors discussed are leukemia inhibitory factor, insulin-like growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, transforming growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor. Cytokines are small protein molecules that regulate the immune response through local and systemic effects.
Insulin family (IGF-I & IGF-II )Girja Pd. Patel
The document discusses insulin-like growth factors IGF-I and IGF-II. It notes that IGF-I and IGF-II are produced primarily in the liver in response to growth hormone stimulation. IGF-I plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have anabolic effects in adults, while IGF-II is important for growth during gestation. Both IGF-I and IGF-II act through autocrine and paracrine signaling pathways to stimulate cellular growth and proliferation through binding to IGF receptors and activating intracellular signaling cascades.
Nerve growth factor (NGF) Signalling pathways.
Nerve growth factor is a small protein that promotes the growth, maintenance, and survival of neurons. It was discovered in 1956 by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen. NGF signals through two pathways, the TrkA pathway which promotes cell survival and the p75 pathway which can promote both survival and apoptosis. NGF production decreases in conditions like Alzheimer's disease, impairing the ability to form new neural connections.
Second messengers cAMP and cGMP
Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules that are released within cells in response to extracellular first messengers like hormones and neurotransmitters. They amplify and propagate intracellular signals. Examples include cyclic AMP (cAMP), cyclic GMP (cGMP), inositol trisphosphate, and calcium. cAMP and cGMP are produced from ATP and GTP by adenylate and guanylate cyclases, respectively. They activate downstream effector proteins like protein kinase A and G. This leads to phosphorylation of various target proteins and physiological responses like metabolism, gene expression, cell survival, proliferation and apoptosis. The document discusses the mechanisms, targets, functions and therapeutic applications of cAMP and cGMP second messenger systems in detail.
INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR
This document summarizes research on growth factors that can influence orthodontic treatment outcomes. It focuses on insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), describing its actions in bone, muscle, and cartilage and how it modulates craniofacial growth. IGF-1 stimulates growth plate bone formation and increases muscle mass, while muscle hypertrophy in turn impacts craniofacial bone morphology. The document also discusses delivering IGF-1 to targeted tissues to influence their growth and craniofacial development.
Insulin and its mechanism of action
Insulin is a peptide hormone, produced by beta cells of the pancreas, and is central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, skeletal muscles, and fat tissue to absorb glucose from the blood. In the liver and skeletal muscles, glucose is stored as glycogen, and in fat cells (adipocytes) it is stored as triglycerides.
Mechanism of steroid hormone action
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble chemical messengers derived from cholesterol that transport signals between cells. They are synthesized and immediately released near their target cells. Since they are lipid-soluble, steroid hormones diffuse freely into cells and are carried in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins. Within target cells, steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that act as transcription factors to increase or decrease the expression of specific genes and thereby influence various physiological processes like carbohydrate regulation, mineral balance, and reproductive functions.
Secondary messengers system
This document discusses second messengers, which are intracellular molecules that amplify and spread signals from receptors on the cell surface. It describes four main classes of second messengers - cyclic nucleotides, membrane lipid derivatives, calcium ions, and gases like nitric oxide. Specifically, it examines the cAMP, cGMP, IP3/DAG, and calcium-mediated signaling pathways, outlining the ligands, effectors, and downstream effects of each messenger. It also provides details on nitric oxide and calcium signaling within cells.
Nuclear Receptors
Nuclear receptors are a family of transcription factors that regulate gene expression in response to small lipophilic compounds like steroid hormones and lipids. They have a conserved structure of six domains including a ligand binding domain that activates gene expression when a ligand is present. Nuclear receptors function by binding to DNA as monomers or dimers and recruiting other proteins to regulate transcription. They are classified into three classes based on their ligand, subcellular localization, and mechanism of action.
Growth hormone
Growth hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has various effects on metabolism and bone growth. It increases protein synthesis and breaks down lipids and spares carbohydrates. Growth hormone stimulates the liver to produce somatomedins, like IGF-1, which are responsible for much of growth hormone's long-term anabolic effects. Growth hormone secretion is stimulated by exercise, fasting, and sleep and inhibited by feeding to form part of a negative feedback loop regulating its levels.
GROWTH HORMONES
This document provides an overview of growth hormones including:
- Their structure, synthesis in the pituitary gland, regulation by hypothalamic hormones, and actions in the body.
- Growth hormones are released in a pulsatile fashion and stimulate growth and metabolism. Their levels are regulated by hormones like growth hormone releasing hormone and growth hormone inhibiting hormone.
- Growth hormones stimulate the production of insulin-like growth factors and have effects like promoting bone and tissue growth, increasing protein synthesis and fat metabolism, and enhancing milk production.
- Abnormalities in growth hormone levels can cause conditions like gigantism, acromegaly, and dwarfism.
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HORMONES
The document summarizes different mechanisms of hormone signal transduction. It describes how hormones bind to cell surface or intracellular receptors which then activate intracellular signaling pathways using second messengers like cAMP, IP3, DAG, calcium. These second messengers go on to affect cell functions like glycogen breakdown, lipid metabolism, transcription etc. through kinases and other effector proteins. The document also discusses G-protein coupled receptor pathway and steroid hormone signaling pathway involving hormone-receptor complexes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Neuropeptides
Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that neurons use to communicate with each other. They are responsible for many brain functions including analgesia, food intake, learning and memory, metabolism, and social behaviors. Some key neuropeptides discussed are Neuropeptide Y, which regulates appetite, and Tachykinins like Substance P which mediates pain. Arginine vasopressin regulates water balance and social behaviors through G protein-coupled receptors.
Receptors and signal transduction
Receptor molecules have three domains: an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain. G-protein coupled receptors have seven transmembrane alpha helices and activate intracellular signaling pathways by coupling to heterotrimeric G proteins. When a ligand binds to the receptor, it causes a G protein's alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP and dissociate from the beta-gamma subunits to activate downstream effector molecules like adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C. These effectors generate second messengers such as cAMP or IP3/DAG to amplify the signal and regulate cellular processes.
Diacylglycerol pathway
This document presents information on the diacylglycerol pathway. It discusses how diacylglycerol (DAG) is an essential secondary messenger in mammalian cells and its levels are regulated by diacylglycerol kinase, diacylglycerol lipase, and diacylglycerol acyltransferase. DAG plays an important role in activating protein kinase C, which controls various cellular processes. DAG is also involved in regulating insulin secretion by increasing calcium ion concentration and stimulating glucose uptake in pancreatic beta cells. Finally, DAG functions as a source for prostaglandins and helps secrete thyroid-releasing hormone and oxytocin.
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This document discusses second messenger systems, which relay signals from cell surface receptors to target molecules inside cells. There are three major classes of second messenger systems: 1) the adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system, which is activated by hormones like epinephrine and glucagon and uses cAMP as the second messenger; 2) the phospholipid system, which uses IP3 and DAG as second messengers; and 3) the calcium-calmodulin system, where calcium acts as the second messenger and binds to and activates calmodulin. These second messengers amplify signals and allow hormones and neurotransmitters to trigger intracellular responses.
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2) Cell surface receptors transmit signals through G protein-coupled receptor pathways that activate secondary messengers like cAMP or calcium. Nuclear receptors directly bind to DNA as transcription factors after entering the nucleus.
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Cyclic amp pathway
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. discovered cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a second messenger that allows hormones like epinephrine to trigger physiological responses in cells. cAMP is produced from ATP by adenylate cyclase in response to hormone binding and activates protein kinase A. Protein kinase A then phosphorylates other proteins to initiate downstream cellular effects. The actions of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterase breaking it down and by dephosphorylation of proteins. cAMP mediates many important processes like glycogen breakdown and gene transcription.
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2. Insulin decreases blood glucose levels, while glucagon and other hormones like growth hormone and cortisol increase blood glucose.
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Second messengers are small intracellular molecules that amplify signals received at cell surface receptors and help transmit them to target molecules inside the cell. The document discusses four main classes of second messengers - cyclic nucleotides, membrane lipid derivatives, calcium ions, and gases like nitric oxide. It provides details on several important second messengers, including cAMP, cGMP, IP3, DAG, and calcium ions, and how they mediate intracellular signaling pathways and cellular responses.
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The document summarizes the mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction. It describes how an action potential leads to a rise in intracellular calcium levels through excitation-contraction coupling. This triggers the sliding filament theory where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through cross-bridge cycling powered by ATP hydrolysis. Calcium binds to troponin C, allowing the power stroke to occur as myosin heads pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs as calcium is re-sequestered in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, breaking the cross-bridges.
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Nuclear receptors are a family of transcription factors that regulate gene expression in response to small lipophilic compounds like steroid hormones and lipids. They have a conserved structure of six domains including a ligand binding domain that activates gene expression when a ligand is present. Nuclear receptors function by binding to DNA as monomers or dimers and recruiting other proteins to regulate transcription. They are classified into three classes based on their ligand, subcellular localization, and mechanism of action.
Growth hormone
Growth hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has various effects on metabolism and bone growth. It increases protein synthesis and breaks down lipids and spares carbohydrates. Growth hormone stimulates the liver to produce somatomedins, like IGF-1, which are responsible for much of growth hormone's long-term anabolic effects. Growth hormone secretion is stimulated by exercise, fasting, and sleep and inhibited by feeding to form part of a negative feedback loop regulating its levels.
GROWTH HORMONES
This document provides an overview of growth hormones including:
- Their structure, synthesis in the pituitary gland, regulation by hypothalamic hormones, and actions in the body.
- Growth hormones are released in a pulsatile fashion and stimulate growth and metabolism. Their levels are regulated by hormones like growth hormone releasing hormone and growth hormone inhibiting hormone.
- Growth hormones stimulate the production of insulin-like growth factors and have effects like promoting bone and tissue growth, increasing protein synthesis and fat metabolism, and enhancing milk production.
- Abnormalities in growth hormone levels can cause conditions like gigantism, acromegaly, and dwarfism.
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The document summarizes different mechanisms of hormone signal transduction. It describes how hormones bind to cell surface or intracellular receptors which then activate intracellular signaling pathways using second messengers like cAMP, IP3, DAG, calcium. These second messengers go on to affect cell functions like glycogen breakdown, lipid metabolism, transcription etc. through kinases and other effector proteins. The document also discusses G-protein coupled receptor pathway and steroid hormone signaling pathway involving hormone-receptor complexes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Neuropeptides
Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that neurons use to communicate with each other. They are responsible for many brain functions including analgesia, food intake, learning and memory, metabolism, and social behaviors. Some key neuropeptides discussed are Neuropeptide Y, which regulates appetite, and Tachykinins like Substance P which mediates pain. Arginine vasopressin regulates water balance and social behaviors through G protein-coupled receptors.
Receptors and signal transduction
Receptor molecules have three domains: an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain. G-protein coupled receptors have seven transmembrane alpha helices and activate intracellular signaling pathways by coupling to heterotrimeric G proteins. When a ligand binds to the receptor, it causes a G protein's alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP and dissociate from the beta-gamma subunits to activate downstream effector molecules like adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C. These effectors generate second messengers such as cAMP or IP3/DAG to amplify the signal and regulate cellular processes.
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Tarakeswar Patel presented on steroid hormone signaling for their M.Sc 2nd semester course guided by their professor. The presentation contained information on what steroids and steroid hormones are, the different types of steroid hormones, how steroid hormones are synthesized and transported, and the genomic and non-genomic pathways of steroid signaling. Steroid hormones signal to cells through both slow genomic pathways that alter gene transcription and protein levels, as well as faster non-genomic pathways that can involve cell surface receptors or affect intracellular processes like ion channels.
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This document discusses second messenger systems, which relay signals from cell surface receptors to target molecules inside cells. There are three major classes of second messenger systems: 1) the adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system, which is activated by hormones like epinephrine and glucagon and uses cAMP as the second messenger; 2) the phospholipid system, which uses IP3 and DAG as second messengers; and 3) the calcium-calmodulin system, where calcium acts as the second messenger and binds to and activates calmodulin. These second messengers amplify signals and allow hormones and neurotransmitters to trigger intracellular responses.
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The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located in the brain that produces melatonin, a hormone that regulates circadian rhythms and sleep cycles. Light exposure inhibits melatonin production during the day, while melatonin levels rise at night in the absence of light. The pineal gland helps synchronize circadian rhythms with the light-dark cycle by modulating melatonin secretion. It consists of pinocytes and neuroglial cells and also secretes serotonin and adrenoglomerulotropin hormone. Melatonin promotes sleep and entrains the body's circadian rhythms to anticipate daily periods of light and darkness.
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A seminar on,hormon receptor
1) Hormonal receptors can be either cell surface receptors located on the cell membrane or nuclear receptors located within the cell nucleus.
2) Cell surface receptors transmit signals through G protein-coupled receptor pathways that activate secondary messengers like cAMP or calcium. Nuclear receptors directly bind to DNA as transcription factors after entering the nucleus.
3) Examples of hormones that act through different receptor pathways include insulin which acts through tyrosine kinase receptors, steroid hormones like estrogen which act through nuclear receptors, and catecholamines which act through G protein-coupled cell surface receptors.
Actin and myosin
The document summarizes the process of muscle contraction via actin and myosin. Calcium ions are released which bind to troponin, displacing tropomyosin and exposing myosin binding sites on actin filaments. Myosin heads attach and change position to slide actin filaments, then detach when ATP binds. Hydrolysis of ATP provides energy to detach myosin heads, and calcium is reabsorbed allowing tropomyosin to reblock binding sites.
Cyclic amp pathway
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. discovered cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a second messenger that allows hormones like epinephrine to trigger physiological responses in cells. cAMP is produced from ATP by adenylate cyclase in response to hormone binding and activates protein kinase A. Protein kinase A then phosphorylates other proteins to initiate downstream cellular effects. The actions of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterase breaking it down and by dephosphorylation of proteins. cAMP mediates many important processes like glycogen breakdown and gene transcription.
Glucagon
1. The document discusses several hormones involved in regulating blood glucose levels, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.
2. Insulin decreases blood glucose levels, while glucagon and other hormones like growth hormone and cortisol increase blood glucose.
3. The liver plays an important role in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis by storing glucose as glycogen and releasing it as needed.
Second messenger system
Second messengers are small intracellular molecules that amplify signals received at cell surface receptors and help transmit them to target molecules inside the cell. The document discusses four main classes of second messengers - cyclic nucleotides, membrane lipid derivatives, calcium ions, and gases like nitric oxide. It provides details on several important second messengers, including cAMP, cGMP, IP3, DAG, and calcium ions, and how they mediate intracellular signaling pathways and cellular responses.
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The document discusses the mode of action and regulation of thyroid hormones. It states that thyroid hormones act by entering cell nuclei and binding with thyroid receptors, initiating gene transcription and protein synthesis. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the pituitary gland is the major regulator of thyroid hormone production and release. TSH levels are controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus through a negative feedback loop with thyroid hormones. A number of other factors also influence thyroid secretion.
Excitation - Contraction coupling
The document summarizes the mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction. It describes how an action potential leads to a rise in intracellular calcium levels through excitation-contraction coupling. This triggers the sliding filament theory where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through cross-bridge cycling powered by ATP hydrolysis. Calcium binds to troponin C, allowing the power stroke to occur as myosin heads pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs as calcium is re-sequestered in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, breaking the cross-bridges.
Adrenal modulla
The document summarizes the hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla, including epinephrine and norepinephrine. It discusses the control of secretion of these hormones through the sympathetic nervous system and in response to stress. It also outlines the metabolism, receptors, physiological effects, and role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism of the catecholamine hormones.
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Avartana Sneha is a unique method of Preparation of Sneha Kalpana in Ayurveda, mainly it is indicated for the Vataja rogas.
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Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
The Electrocardiogram - Physiologic Principles
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Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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