During the 19th century in the Philippines: - The ascendance of Chinese mestizos, who owned large sugar and coffee haciendas, increased their economic influence and later helped native Filipinos fight against Spanish rule. - Land ownership was dominated by Spanish friars, who developed the hacienda system. This led to conflicts over land and the oppression of farmers like Jose Rizal's family. - Disagreements between the secular and regular clergy, with the latter being mostly Spanish, sparked revolutions against the Spanish and the execution of Gomburza. This began fostering Filipino nationalism.