All living things are primarily composed of large biomolecules called biomolecules, which are made up of many atoms bonded together. Biomolecules contain carbon and are classified into four main types: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches, lipids are fats and oils, proteins are made of amino acids, and nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These macromolecules are essential for life and perform important functions in cells and organisms.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. All LIVING things are mostly
made of 4 types of molecules
called BIOMOLECULES.
BIOMOLECULES are very
large molecules of many
ATOMS covalently bonded
together
All BIOMOLECULES contain
CARBON (C)
4. Carbon
Just like water carbon is very important to
life
Most molecules of the cell are carbon-based
Molecules in the cell are called
biomolecules
These consist of a backbone of carbon
atoms
Atoms of other elements may branch off this
backbone
This is the basic structure of most of the
5. Carbon (C)
Carbon (C)
Carbon
Carbon has 4 electrons
4 electrons in outer
shell.
Carbon
Carbon can form covalent bonds
covalent bonds
with as many as 4
4 other atoms
(elements).
Usually with C, H, O or N
C, H, O or N.
Example:
Example: CH
CH4
4(methane)
(methane)
5
6. Why are carbon atoms so common in
living things?
Because carbon is a very versatile element
Lets look at the element carbon
It has 4 electrons on it’s outer shell/energy level
This means it can form up to four bonds with other atoms
Carbon-based molecules are called organic molecules
Non- carbon based molecules are called……
Inorganic molecules
e.g. water, oxygen, ammonia
7. Monomers & Polymers
Some biomolecules consist of hundreds or even millions of atoms
Large molecules are made from smaller units called monomers
Monomers are linked to form polymers
Every cell has thousands of different polymers
All these are built from fewer than 50 monomers
Life’s large molecules are classified into 4 main categories:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
The 4 types of biomolecules often consist of large
carbon chains
9. Macromolecules
Macromolecules
Large organic molecules.
Large organic molecules.
Also called POLYMERS
POLYMERS.
Made up of smaller “building blocks” called
MONOMERS
MONOMERS.
Examples:
Examples:
1. Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
)
9
10. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon
Composing elements C, H, O
Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1
Can be simple monomers like glucose
Can be complex polymers like cellulose
10
12. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made up of Sugar molecules.
Contain C, H, O in the ratio 1:2:1
Small sugar molecules
Small sugar molecules to large sugar molecules
large sugar molecules.
Examples:
Examples:
A.
A. monosaccharide
monosaccharide
B.
B. disaccharide
disaccharide
C.
C. polysaccharide
polysaccharide
12
13. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide: one sugar unit
Monosaccharide: one sugar unit
Examples:
Examples: glucose (
glucose (C6H12O6)
deoxyribose
deoxyribose
ribose
ribose
Fructose
Fructose
Galactose
Galactose
13
glucose
glucose
14. Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made up of sugar molecules
Contain C, H, O in the ratio 1:2:1
Monosaccharides
Consist of just one sugar unit
E.g. glucose, fructose and galactose
Honey contains glucose and fructose
Main fuel for cellular work
Cells break down glucose molecules and
extract their stored energy
15. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Disaccharide:
Disaccharide: Made by joining 2 monosaccharides by process of
dehydration Examples:Sucrose,lactose, maltose
Examples:Sucrose,lactose, maltose
15
•These sugars give energy that lasts a little longer than monosaccharides because
the glycosidic bond (a covalent bond between two monosaccharides) must be
broken before the sugar can be used for energy
16. Using a dehydration reaction cells can make disaccharides
from two monosaccharides
Sucrose is made from glucose and fructose
Found in plant sap
Table sugar is sucrose which comes from sugar cane
18. Polysaccharides
Also called complex carbs
Starch made of glucose monomers
Starch is found mostly in plants
Glycogen is found in animal cells
Stored in liver and muscle
Cellulose is a polysacc that acts as a building material
Commonly known as fiber
We do not have a digestive enzyme to break it down
19. Functions of carbohydrates.
HOW DO THEY HELP THE CELL?
HOW DO THEY HELP THE CELL?
Carbohydrate functions as an energy source of the body and acts as Bio fuel.
1. PROVIDE ENERGY.
1. PROVIDE ENERGY.
Polysaccharide starch acts as storage food for plants.
Glycogen stored in liver and muscles acts as storage food for animals.
2. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT.
2. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT.
Cellulose forms cell wall of plant cell
3. CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION.
3. CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION.
Therefore the building block of Carbohydrates are sugars
Therefore the building block of Carbohydrates are sugars
21. Lipids
Have you ever looked into a bottle of salad dressing….
What did you notice?
Lipids are hydrophobic – afraid of water
This is very important to their function
Cell membranes surround the cell
Lipids also make signalling molecules
Form energy storage
22. Lipids
Lipids
General term for compounds which are not soluble in water
not soluble in water.
Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents
are soluble in hydrophobic solvents.
Remember:
Remember: “stores the most energy”
“stores the most energy”
Examples:
Examples: 1. Fats
1. Fats
2. Phospholipids
2. Phospholipids
3. Oils
3. Oils
4. Waxes
4. Waxes
5. Steroid hormones
5. Steroid hormones
6. Triglycerides
6. Triglycerides
22
23. Lipids
Lipids
Six functions of lipids:
Six functions of lipids:
1.
1. Long term
Long term energy storage
energy storage
2.
2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)
Protection against heat loss (insulation)
3.
3. Protection against physical shock
Protection against physical shock
4.
4. Protection against water loss
Protection against water loss
5.
5. Chemical messengers (hormones)
Chemical messengers (hormones)
6.
6. Major component of membranes
Major component of membranes
(phospholipids)
(phospholipids)
23
24. Lipids- structure
Lipids- structure
C
Composed of 3 carbon backbone called glycerol and 3
3
fatty acids
fatty acids.
24
H
H-C----O
H-C----O
H-C----O
H
glycerol
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
=
fatty acids
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
=
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH =CH-CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
3
=
25. Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids
There are two kinds of fatty acids
fatty acids you may see these on food labels:
1.
1. Saturated fatty acids:
Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad)
no double bonds (bad) Lard and butter (solid at RT)
2.
2. Unsaturated fatty acids:
Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good)
double bonds (good) Fats found in fruit, vegetable, fish,
corn oil, vegetable oil
25
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
=
saturated
saturated
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
2 -CH
3
=
unsaturated
26. Saturated fats…..take care
Diets rich in saturated fats are unhealthy….
Cause the build up of plaque-like substance in your
arteries
28. Amino acids
Each amino acid consists of a central carbon with 4 partners
In all amino acids 3 of the partners are the same with
Hydrogen
Amino group – NH2
Carboxyl group – COOH
R-group is the functional group which is different in all amino acids
This is responsible for the properties of each AA
29. Building a protein….
Cells make proteins by linking 20 amino acids by peptide bonds.
Amino acids are joined together when a dehydration reaction removes a
hydroxyl group from the carboxyl end of one amino acid and a hydrogen
from the amino group of another.
This chain of AA’s is called a polypeptide (also known as a protein)
Proteins are made from one or more polypeptide chains.
Human body makes lots of proteins using different arrangements of
amino acids
Each protein has a unique sequence of AA’s
30. Protein shape
An chain of AA’s on it’s own cannot function.
A functional or working protein consists of polypeptide chains twisted,
folded and coiled in a special way.
There are 4 levels of proteins
Four levels of protein structure are:
Four levels of protein structure are:
A.
A.Primary Structure
Primary Structure
B.
B. Secondary Structure
Secondary Structure
C.
C. Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure
D.
D.Quaternary Structure
Quaternary Structure
30
32. Primary Structure
Amino acids bonded together by
peptide bonds (straight chains)
peptide bonds (straight chains)
Amino acid sequence of the protein
32
aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5 aa6
Peptide Bonds
Amino Acids (aa)
33. Secondary Structure -
Secondary Structure - H bonds in the peptide chain
backbone
3-dimensional folding arrangement of a
primary structure
primary structure into coils
coils and pleats
pleats held
together by hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bonds.
Two examples:
Two examples:
33
Alpha Helix
Alpha Helix
Beta Pleated Sheet
Beta Pleated Sheet
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
34. Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Secondary structures
Secondary structures bent
bent and folded
folded
into a more complex 3-D arrangement
more complex 3-D arrangement
of linked polypeptides
Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide
Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide
bridges (S-S)
bridges (S-S)
Call a “subunit”.
“subunit”.
34
Alpha Helix
Alpha Helix
Beta Pleated Sheet
Beta Pleated Sheet
36. Proteins (Polypeptides)
Proteins (Polypeptides)
Amino acids (20 different kinds of aa) bonded together by
peptide bonds
peptide bonds (polypeptides
polypeptides).
Building blocks of Proteins are Amino Acids.
Six functions of proteins :
Six functions of proteins :
1.
1. Storage:
Storage: albumin (egg white)
albumin (egg white)
2.
2. Transport:
Transport: hemoglobin
hemoglobin
3.
3. Regulatory:
Regulatory: hormones
hormones
4.
4. Movement:
Movement: muscles
muscles
5.
5. Structural:
Structural: membranes, hair, nails
membranes, hair, nails
6.
6. Enzymes:
Enzymes: cellular reactions
cellular reactions
36
37. Functions of proteins.
Structural proteins -they form structures like hair. Horns, feather &
fur.
As storage- Make up muscles and provide long term nutrient
storage. (Albumin in the egg. And seeds of plants)
As Hormones – Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas causes
other tissues to take up glucose and regulates blood sugar
concentration.
As Defense mechanism- They circulate in blood and defend from
harmful microbes.(Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and
bacteria).
Transport – Hemoglobin a protein in blood helps carrying oxygen.
Some act as signals, conveying messages from cell to cell.
As enzymes -A group of proteins controls the chemical reactions in
a cell.(enzymes)
37
38. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Each nucleic acid is made of monomers called nucleotides
• Each nucleotide consists of
phosphate group
phosphate group
pentose sugar (5-carbon)
pentose sugar (5-carbon)
nitrogenous bases:
nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A)
adenine (A)
thymine (T) DNA only
thymine (T) DNA only
uracil (U) RNA only
uracil (U) RNA only
cytosine (C)
cytosine (C)
guanine (G
guanine (G
38
39. DNA - double helix
DNA - double helix
39
P
P
P
O
O
O
1
2
3
4
5
5
3
3
5
P
P
P
O
O
O
1
2 3
4
5
5
3
5
3
G C
T A
40. How do enzymes work?
In the human body catalysts are called enzymes
Each enzyme catalyzes (or speeds up) only one type of reaction – an
enzyme is specific
The molecules that an enzyme reacts with are called substrate
The substrate fits exactly into a part of the enzyme called the active
site.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down Sucrose into glucose and
fructose
copyright cmassengale
40
Substrate
Enzyme Active
site
43. Dehydration Synthesis
Dehydration Synthesis
Also called “condensation reaction”
“condensation reaction”
Forms polymers
polymers by combining
monomers
monomers by “removing water”
“removing water”.
43
HO H
HO HO H
H
H2O
44. Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building blocks,
called monomers.
The monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form
larger molecules known as polymers.
In doing so, monomers release water molecules as byproducts.
This type of reaction is known as dehydration synthesis, which means “to
put together while losing water.”
Question:
Question:
How are Macromolecules separated or digested?
How are Macromolecules separated or digested?
Hydrolysis - Polymers are broken down into monomers in a process
known as hydrolysis, which means “to split water,” a reaction in which a
water molecule is used during the breakdown
44
