The document provides an in-depth analysis of the processing, types, composition, and nutritive value of animal meat, fish, poultry, and milk. It covers the various categories of meats such as red, white, processed, and game meat, along with their specific nutritional benefits, highlighting the significance of protein, vitamins, and minerals derived from these sources. Additionally, the document explores health considerations associated with different types of meat and the nutritional profile of fish and poultry, emphasizing their role in a balanced diet.

1. Module-3
PROCESSING OF ANIMAL MEAT, FISH,
POULTRY AND MILK
• Types, Composition and Nutritive Value
of Animal Meat,
• Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of Fish,
• Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of
Poultry,
• Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of Milk,
• Post Harvest Changes,
• Types of Processing Methods,
• Changes during Storage

2. Types, Composition and Nutritive Value
of Animal Meat
• Animal meat is a rich source of essential nutrients
and comes in various types, each with distinct
compositions and nutritional profiles.
• Meat refers to muscle of warm blooded four-legged
animals. Meat is defined as skeletal muscle with
naturally attached tissue. Red meat consists of
mutton, pork, beef and rabbit meat.
• The flesh of birds (poultry), fish, crustaceans, flesh
of salmon and lobsters are light coloured and are
referred to as white meat.

3. Types of Animal Meat
• Red Meat
▫ Examples: Beef, lamb, pork, goat.
▫ Characteristics: Typically darker in color, higher in myoglobin, which
binds oxygen in muscle tissue.
• White Meat
▫ Examples: Chicken, turkey, rabbit.
▫ Characteristics: Lighter color, lower in myoglobin compared to red meat.
• Processed Meat
▫ Examples: Bacon, sausages, hot dogs, ham.
▫ Characteristics: Often contains added preservatives, salts, and flavorings.
• Game Meat
▫ Examples: Venison (deer), wild boar, elk, pheasant.
▫ Characteristics: Usually leaner and can have a more robust flavor
compared to domesticated meats.
• Offal
▫ Examples: Liver, kidneys, heart, tongue, tripe.
▫ Characteristics: Often considered less desirable but highly nutritious.

4. Classes of meat and related products
• 1. Veal: It is the meat from cattle slaughtered 3 to 4 weeks after
birth.
• 2. Beef: Meat of cattle over 1 year old.
• 3. Mutton: Flesh of young ovine animals of both sexes whose age
is 12 months or under.
• 4. Yearling Mutton: Carcasses of young sheep usually from 12
to about 20 months old are termed yearling mutton.
• 5. Mature mutton: Flesh of both the male and female of ovine
species that are 20 months in age at the time of slaughter.
• 6. Pork: It is the meat of swine. Good quality pork is obtained
from animals between the age of 3-12 months before the amount
of fat becomes excessive.
• 7. Organ meats: Liver, kidney, heart, thymus, pancreas and
brain.
• 8. Sausages: Made of ground or minced meat and are enclosed
in casings

5. Structure of meat
• Animal flesh consists of muscle tissue or fibres,
connective tissue and fatty (adipose) tissue. Lean meat is
the muscle tissue of animals.
• Meat muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres held
together by creamy white connective tissues. Tendons
join muscles (made up of bundles of muscle fibres,
surrounded by connective tissue) to the bones of animals.
• Fat: Fat is distributed throughout meat in small particles
or in large masses. The pattern formed by the uniform
distribution of fat in small “lakes” throughout the muscle
or lean flesh is called marbling and is considered an
important factor in contributing tenderness and flavour
to muscle tissue

6. The colour of meat
• The colour of meat is due to the red pigment called
myoglobin.

7. Offals (Organ meats)
• Offal also called as organ meats, refers to the internal
organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The name
offal means “off fall”, in other words, the bits which
fall from an animal when it is butchered.
• The term offals generally covers organs such as the
heart, liver and lungs (collectively known as the
pluck) and other organs like the kidneys, brains,
head, feet, tongue, intestines and tails. Offal from
birds is generally referred to as giblets.
• Offals are a highly nutritious food and an excellent
source of protein. The liver, kidney and heart are a
good source of iron and vitamins A, and D.

9. Composition and Nutritive value of meat
• Meat has an outstanding nutritive value, contributing
substantial amount of high quality proteins and essential
minerals and vitamins to the diet.
• Meat contains 15- 20 percent protein of high biological
value. The proteins of meat are well utilized by the body,
thus ensuring a supply of essential amino acids necessary
for growth and maintenance.
• Meat contains enough iron, phosphorus, zinc and copper to
rate as an important source of these minerals.
• As farasvitaminsareconcerned, vitamin A, thiamine and
riboflavin are present in liver, kidneys, heart and
sweetbreads (the pancreas or the thymus).
• All lean meats contain thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.
Meat is also relatively high in energy value. Meat fats are
rich in saturated fatty acids.

10. Composition of Animal Meat
1. Water Content:
• Ranges: 60% to 75% of the total weight of raw meat.
• Effect: Water content affects meat juiciness and tenderness.
2. Protein:
• Content: Typically 15% to 25% of the total weight.
• Quality: High biological value, providing all essential amino
acids required by the body.
3. Fat:
• Content: Ranges from 2% to 30% depending on the type of
meat and its cut.
Types of Fat:
▫ Saturated Fat: Common in red meats; excessive intake can be
linked to heart disease.
▫ Unsaturated Fat: More common in white meats and leaner
cuts.

11. 4. Carbohydrates:
• Content: Generally negligible or absent in meat.
• Glycogen: Small amounts present in muscle tissue, but it
depletes during slaughter.
5. Minerals:
• Iron: Red meat is particularly rich in heme iron, which is more
easily absorbed by the body.
• Zinc: Found in significant amounts, important for immune
function.
• Phosphorus: Important for bone health and energy production.
6. Vitamins:
• Vitamin B12: Found abundantly in meat, essential for red
blood cell formation and neurological function.
• B Vitamins: Meat provides B vitamins like niacin (B3),
riboflavin (B2), and pyridoxine (B6), which are important for
metabolism and energy production.

12. Nutritive Value of Animal Meat
1. Protein Quality:
• Complete Proteins: Meat is a complete protein source, meaning it
contains all essential amino acids in adequate amounts.
• Bioavailability: The protein in meat is highly digestible and efficiently
utilized by the body.
2. Fat Profile:
• Saturated vs. Unsaturated: The fat composition varies with the type
of meat and its cut. Red meats generally have higher saturated fat
content compared to white meats.
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Present in fatty fish like salmon, which is
beneficial for heart health.
3. Micronutrients:
• Iron: Heme iron from meat is more readily absorbed compared to non-
heme iron found in plant foods.
• Zinc and Vitamin B12: Critical for various bodily functions including
immune health, wound healing, and nervous system function.

13. Nutritive value of Meat:
Intracellular protoplasmic proteins:83-90 % -
These are involved in contraction of muscle.
Myosin:60.0% - Protein of the thick filaments.
Actin:This is a major protein of thin filaments and
constitutes
Tropomyosin:15 – 30 per cent of myofibrils.
Troponin:This is found in thin filaments.
Muscle Protein:A component of contractile system.

14. Muscle protein consist of two types
• Intracellular or protoplasmic proteins and
• The structural proteins which are contributed by the connective
tissues.
• The protoplasmic proteins constitute 83 - 90 % of the total
proteins, while the connective tissue proteins constitute about 10-
17 % per cent of the total proteins. The chief protoplasmic
proteins are myocin and actin. They are coagulated when
heated. The chief connective tissue protein present in muscle is
collagen. It is converted into gelatin during cooking of muscle.
Pigments:
• Myoglobin is the chief pigment responsible for the pink to red
colour of muscle, although some red blood cells with their
haemoglobin remain in the capillaries after the animal bled
before slaughter. The amount of myoglobin in muscle varies with
the age and breed of animal from 0.07 to 0.46 per cent the
average myoglobin content being about 0.36 per cent.

15. Carbohydrates: The chief carbohydrate is glycogen which is
present to the extent of about 1.0% per cent in resting muscle.
The muscle taken from the slaughtered animal undergoes
contraction ( rigor mortis) during which all the glycogen present
undergoes glycolysis to lactic acid.
Protein: Meat contains 15-20 % protein of outstanding
nutritive value. The lean meat contains 20 -22 % proteins.
Biological value of meat protein is better than vegetable proteins.
Fish protein has higher biological value than meat protein.
Water: Water is the largest single component of muscle by
weight. Changes in the amount of water present and the extent to
which it is bound by the muscle components is considered to
influence the tenderness, texture and juiciness of meat, as well as
the yield of cooked meat.

16. Fat: The fat content of meat varies from 5 to 40 per cent with
the type, breed, and age of the animal. When the animal is well
fed, fat deposits subcutaneously as a protective layer around
the organ. Then it accumulates around and between the
muscles.
• Finally, fat penetrates between the muscle fibre bundles and
this is known as ‘marbling’. Marbling is desirable with some
meat-like beef because the amount of fat and consequently the
water- holding capacity of meat greatly influence juiciness.
• Meat fats are rich in saturated fatty acids. The cholesterol
content of meat is about 75 mg per 100g. The lean portion of
meat contains greater proportions of phospholipids (0.5 – 1.0)
and these are located in the membrane of the cell. The fatty
acids in the lean portion of meat have a higher proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids than tissue fats.

17. Minerals: The mineral elements occur either as a variety of
compounds within muscles.
• Calcium and magnesium are essential components of the
contraction- relaxation cycle. Iron is a part of the red pigment and so
influences colour. Zinc is found in one of the enzymes.
• Meat is a good source of iron and phosphorus. Meat also contains
sodium and potassium. Liver is an excellent source of iron.
• Meat is an excellent source of some of the vitamins of the B complex.
Liver is rich in vitamin B12 and vitamin A and iron.
Meat contains protein hydrolyzing enzymes cathepsins and these are
responsible for the increase in tenderness of meat during ageing.
• The colour of meat is primarily due to myoglobin and haemoglobin.
Meats cured with nitrates remain pink as nitric oxide myoglobin is
stable. Haemoglobin also contributes to the colour of meat to some
extent.
• The flavour of meat has complex sensation, which is due to water
soluble substances such as inosinic acid.

18. • Proteolytic enzymes: The chief proteolytic
enzyme present in meat is cathepsin. The optimum
pH for its activity is 4.0. It is possible that cathepsin
is involved in the development of tenderness in
meat during ageing.
Health Considerations:
• Lean vs. Fatty Cuts: Lean cuts are generally
lower in fat and calories, while fatty cuts can
contribute to higher calorie and fat intake.
• Processed Meats: Often high in sodium and
preservatives; excessive consumption can be linked
to health issues like cardiovascular disease and
certain cancers.

19. • Animal meat is a valuable source of high-quality
protein, essential vitamins, and minerals.
• The health benefits can vary based on the type of
meat, its fat content, and how it’s processed.
• Opting for lean cuts, moderating red meat intake,
and choosing minimally processed meats can
contribute to a balanced diet and overall health.

20. Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of Fish
Fish
• India has a coast line of 5,100 km. Over 200 edible
fish varieties are known to be commercially
important.
• Marine types of fish are sardines, mackerel, tuna,
catfish, brown duck, ribbon fish, prawns and cuttle.
Fresh water fish are carps, catla, rohu, murrels and
hilsa.
• Fish contains complete proteins and can be an
alternative for meat in the diet, but unfortunately
fish consumption per capita is far lower than that of
meat.

21. Classification of Fish
• Edible fish are categorized as either fin fish of shell
fish. The term fin fish refers to the fishes that have
bony skeleton. Shell fish is used to designate both
mollusks and crustaceans. Shellfish are highly
perishable.
• Crustacea have legs with partly joined outer shells.
They include crabs, lobsters, prawns and shrimps.
Molluscs have harder outer shells and no legs. They
have hinged shells like oysters, scallops and
mussels.

22. Classification of Fish

23. Composition and Nutritive Value
• Commonly consumed fish are carp, rohu, sardine,
mackerel pomfrets, seer fish, prawns, ribbons fish,
sole, Bombay duck, catfish and crab.
• The composition of fish varies. Fish are not good
source of energy because they are not good sources
of carbohydrate and fat.

24. • Carbohydrate: The shell fish has less fat and more
carbohydrate than fin fish. Like meat, fish contain
some glycogen in muscle tissues. In the live fish,
glycogen is the source of stored energy. Oysters are
notable for their high content of glycogen.
• Protein : Fish is an excellent source of protein due to
its quality and quantity. They contain around
20percent protein. The biological value of fish protein
is 80. Fish is rich in lysine and methionine hence it
has supplementary value with cereals and pulses.
• Fat : Fish contains less amount of fat compared to
meat and poultry. Fresh water fish contains
eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid
which are w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

25. • Minerals: Fish is rich in calcium particularly small
fish when eaten with bones. Marine fish are good
sources of iodine, selenium and fluoride. Selenium is a
powerful antioxidant. Oysters are good source of
copper and iron. Sodium content of freshwater fish is
slightly less than meat. Shell fish such as oysters are
nature’s richest source of zinc. The bioavailability of
iron and zinc is higher in fish than plant foods.
• Vitamins: Sea foods contain significant amounts of
vitamin B12 especially shell fishes. Fish liver oils are
excellent source of fat-soluble vitamins. Shark liver oil
contains 10,000-24,000 IU of vitamin A per gram of
oil. Rohu contains vitamin C. Fish are good source of
niacin and vitamin D. Sea foods contain significant
amounts of vitamin B12 especially shell fishes.

26. Fish and health
• Eskimos living in Greenland and the fishing community in
Japan, enjoy complete freedom from cardiovascular
diseases. Their daily consumption of fish is 250-400 g. The
beneficial effect of dietary fish is attributed to the fatty acid
composition of the fish.
Selection of Fish
• Fish thatare freshcanbeeasilyidentified by the following
qualities:
• Prawns : Fresh and firm, strong colour, no unpleasant
smell.
• Scallops : Pinkish white or pale yellow, feel firm, give-off
clear liquid.
• Clams, oysters and mussels : Tightly closed and heavy
for their size, shells should not be cracked.

28. Health Benefits of Eating Fish
• Heart Health: Omega-3 fatty acids help lower the risk of
heart disease, reduce blood pressure, and improve cholesterol
levels.
• Brain Health: DHA (an omega-3) supports cognitive function
and may reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.
• Weight Management: Fish is low in calories and high in
protein, promoting satiety and aiding in weight loss or
management.
• Eye Health: Vitamin A from fish helps maintain healthy
vision, especially in low light.
• Bone Health: Vitamin D and calcium, particularly from small
fish, support bone density and strength.
• Reduced Inflammation: Omega-3s have anti-inflammatory
properties, beneficial for those with arthritis or inflammatory
conditions.

29. • Fish is a nutrient-dense food, providing a rich
source of high-quality protein, healthy fats, and
essential vitamins and minerals.
• Fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, and sardines are
particularly valuable due to their omega-3 content
and fat-soluble vitamins, while lean fish like cod
and haddock offer lower-calorie options with
significant protein and mineral contributions.
• Regular consumption of fish can promote overall
health, particularly for heart, brain, and bone
health.

30. Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of
Poultry
Poultry
 The term poultry is applied to all domesticated birds used as food and
includes chicken, ducks, geese, turkeys and pigeons. Of these, chicken
and turkey are most commonly used for their meat.
Classification
 Poultry is classified based on age. Age influences tenderness and fat
content of the poultry. According to Indian standards, the classification
is as follows:
• Broiler or fryer: Chicken of 8 to 10 weeks of age either sex, having
tender meat with soft, pliable smooth textured skin and flexible
breastbone cartilage.
• Roaster: A young chicken, usually 3 to 5 month of age, of either sex,
having tender meat with soft, pliable smooth textured skin and
breastbone cartilage that may be somewhat less flexible that of the
broiler or fryer.

31. • Stag: A male chicken, usually under 10 months of
age with coarse skin, somewhat toughened and
darkened flesh and a considerable hardening of the
breastbone cartilage.
• Stewing chicken or fowl: A mature chicken,
usually more than 10 months of age, with meat less
tender than that of a roaster and inflexible
breastbone tip.
• Cock: A mature male chicken, usually over 10
months of age, with coarse skin, toughened and
darkened meat and hardened breastbone tip.

32. Processing
• Poultry is marketed in ready to cook form as dressed
chicken after removing the head, feet and entrails.
After the birds are killed, they are scalded, that is,
dipped in hot water briefly. The temperature of the
scald water may be 60 0
C and the bird is kept in it for
about 45 seconds or more. Scalding loosens the
feathers on the chicken and thus helps defeathering.
• After defeathering, evisceration of the bird takes
place. The eviscerated birds are thoroughly washed
and chilled. Chicken can be purchased whole, cut
into parts or in packs of similar individual parts, such
as breasts, drum sticks or thighs.

33. Composition and Nutritive Value
Poultry meat has high protein content (about 25 percent)
and is comparable in quality and nutritive value to other
meats. It contains all the essential amino acids required for
building body tissues. There is a little fat on the meat of
young birds, but the fat content is influenced by age and
species of poultry.
Chicken fat is more unsaturated than the fat of red meat and
this has nutritional advantage. Because of its high protein to
fat ratio, poultry meat is advantageous to persons who must
restrict the intake of fats. Like other animal tissues, poultry
flesh is a good source of B Vitamins and minerals.

34. Health Benefits of Poultry
• High-Quality Protein: Poultry is an excellent source of
complete protein, which is essential for muscle
development, immune function, and tissue repair.
• Low in Saturated Fats: Lean cuts of poultry, especially
skinless chicken breast, are low in saturated fats, making
them heart-healthy choices.
• Rich in B Vitamins: These vitamins play a crucial role
in energy production, brain health, and red blood cell
formation.
• Good Source of Selenium: Poultry is rich in selenium,
a powerful antioxidant that helps combat oxidative stress
and supports thyroid health.
• Iron and Zinc: These minerals are critical for oxygen
transport, immune function, and cellular repair, especially
in dark meat and organ meats.

35. Selection of poultry
• When purchasing fresh poultry, look for firm birds
with plump flesh the skin should not look wrinkled.
If buying frozen chicken, check that the package is
well sealed.
• Poultry is a versatile and nutritious food source,
providing high-quality protein, essential vitamins,
and minerals, while being relatively low in fat,
particularly in lean cuts like chicken and turkey
breast.
• Its nutritive value makes it a staple in many diets
around the world, contributing to health and well-
being.

36. Types, Composition and Nutritive Value of Milk
• Milk is a complex and nutrient-rich liquid food produced by mammals
to nourish their young. It is a primary source of essential nutrients and
is widely consumed by humans in various forms.
Types of Milk
• Milk can be categorized based on its source, processing method, and fat
content. Some common types include:
Based on Source:
▫ Cow’s Milk: The most widely consumed milk globally.
▫ Buffalo’s Milk: Richer in fat and protein compared to cow’s milk.
▫ Goat’s Milk: Easier to digest and often used as an alternative to cow’s
milk.
▫ Sheep’s Milk: Contains higher levels of certain nutrients, like calcium and
protein.
▫ Camel’s Milk: Known for its high vitamin C content.
▫ Plant-Based Milk Alternatives: Includes almond, soy, oat, rice, and
coconut milk.

37. Based on Fat Content:
• Whole Milk: Contains around 3.5% fat.
• Reduced-Fat Milk: Usually 1–2% fat.
• Low-Fat Milk: Typically around 0.5–1% fat.
• Skimmed Milk (Fat-Free): Contains less than 0.5% fat.
Based on Processing:
• Pasteurized Milk: Heat-treated to kill harmful bacteria.
• UHT (Ultra-High Temperature) Milk: Sterilized at
very high temperatures to increase shelf life.
• Raw Milk: Unpasteurized and not heat-treated (requires
caution due to potential pathogens).
• Fortified Milk: Enriched with additional nutrients, such
as vitamin D and calcium.

38. Composition of Milk
• Milk is a complex fluid composed of water,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.
The approximate composition of cow’s milk is as
follows:
• Water: 87–88%
• Carbohydrates (Lactose): 4.5–5%
• Proteins: 3.3% (mainly casein and whey proteins)
• Fats: 3.5–4% (triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols)
• Minerals: 0.7% (mainly calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, and magnesium)
• Vitamins: A, D, B2 (Riboflavin), and B12
• Enzymes & Other Components: Hormones,
immunoglobulins, and bioactive peptides

39. Nutritive Value of Milk
• Milk is considered a complete food due to its balanced nutrient
profile. Below are its key nutritive benefits:
• Proteins:
▫ High-quality protein that contains all essential amino acids.
▫ Casein (80%): Slower to digest, provides a steady release of amino
acids.
▫ Whey Protein (20%): Quickly digested, rich in branched-chain
amino acids (BCAAs).
• Carbohydrates:
▫ Primary carbohydrate is lactose, which provides energy.
▫ Lactose aids in calcium absorption and supports gut health.
• Fats:
▫ Contains a mix of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
▫ Rich in essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E,
and K.
▫ Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), found in cow’s milk, is believed to
have health benefits.

40. Vitamins:
• Vitamin A: Important for vision, immunity, and skin health.
• Vitamin D: Supports calcium absorption and bone health.
• Vitamin B12: Crucial for nerve function and red blood cell
formation.
• Riboflavin (B2): Supports energy production and metabolism.
Minerals:
• Calcium: Essential for bone and teeth health, muscle function,
and blood clotting.
• Phosphorus: Works with calcium to build strong bones.
• Potassium: Helps maintain normal blood pressure and muscle
function.
• Magnesium: Supports muscle and nerve function and bone
health.
Bioactive Compounds:
• Contains immunoglobulins and growth factors that support the
immune system and gut health.

41. Health Benefits of Milk
• Regular consumption of milk and dairy products can
offer several health benefits:
• Bone Health: The high calcium and vitamin D content
support bone density and reduce the risk of osteoporosis.
• Muscle Growth and Repair: Milk proteins, especially
whey, are beneficial for muscle building and repair.
• Weight Management: The protein and fat content of
milk can help control appetite and support weight
management.
• Heart Health: Potassium in milk can help maintain
healthy blood pressure levels.
• Gut Health: Fermented milk products like yogurt
contain probiotics that promote gut health.

42. Considerations and Potential Concerns
• Lactose Intolerance: Individuals who lack the
enzyme lactase may have difficulty digesting
lactose, leading to bloating, gas, and discomfort.
• Allergies: Some individuals may be allergic to
milk proteins (casein or whey).
• High-Fat Content: Whole milk and some dairy
products may contribute to high cholesterol levels
in susceptible individuals.

43. Plant-Based Milk Alternatives
• For those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to milk proteins, or
prefer a vegan lifestyle, plant-based milk alternatives are available.
These include:
• Soy Milk: High in protein, a good source of potassium, and often
fortified with calcium and vitamin D.
• Almond Milk: Low in calories, contains vitamin E, but lower in
protein.
• Oat Milk: High in fiber and often fortified, but contains more
carbohydrates.
• Coconut Milk: Rich in medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), but low
in protein.
• Rice Milk: Hypoallergenic and suitable for those with multiple
allergies, but higher in sugar.
 Milk, in its various forms, remains a vital source of nutrition
worldwide. Choosing the right type of milk depends on individual
health needs, dietary preferences, and tolerance. Understanding its
composition and nutritive value can help individuals make informed
choices about incorporating milk into their diet.