Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency carrier wave in accordance with a modulating signal. This is done to transmit data signals that are not always suitable for direct transmission. There are three main types of modulation: amplitude modulation varies the amplitude of the carrier wave, frequency modulation varies the carrier frequency, and phase modulation varies the carrier phase. Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information-bearing signal from the modulated carrier wave at the receiver. Modulation is necessary because practical antenna lengths require high frequencies for transmission, audio frequencies cannot be transmitted over large distances if radiated directly, and modulated carrier waves have higher energy and operating range than non-modulated audio signals.
MicroStrip Antenna
Introduction .
Micro-Strip Antennas Types .
Micro-Strip Antennas Shapes .
Types of Substrates (Dielectric Media) .
Comparison of various types of flat profile printed antennas .
Advantages & DisAdvantages of MSAs .
Applications of MSAs .
Radiation patterns of MSAs .
How to Optimizing the Substrate Properties for Increased Bandwidth ?
Comparing the different feed techniques .
MicroStrip Antenna
Introduction .
Micro-Strip Antennas Types .
Micro-Strip Antennas Shapes .
Types of Substrates (Dielectric Media) .
Comparison of various types of flat profile printed antennas .
Advantages & DisAdvantages of MSAs .
Applications of MSAs .
Radiation patterns of MSAs .
How to Optimizing the Substrate Properties for Increased Bandwidth ?
Comparing the different feed techniques .
An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple connected antennas which work together as a single antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves. The individual antenna elements are connected to a single receiver or transmitter by feedlines that feed the power to the elements in a specific phase relationship. The radio waves radiated by each individual antenna combine and superpose, adding together (interfering constructively) to enhance the power radiated in desired directions, and cancelling (interfering destructively) to reduce the power radiated in other directions. Similarly, when used for receiving, the separate radio frequency currents from the individual antennas combine in the receiver with the correct phase relationship to enhance signals received from the desired directions and cancel signals from undesired directions.
In this thesis two different circular shaped proximity feed antenna are undertaken, both in the
area of compact RF/microwave circuits design. The first design involves the design of a
Circular shaped radiating patch antenna with Semicircular ground plane and ring of circles. A
study of several circular shaped microstrip antennas reported in the past has been carried out.
In this research, a method of reducing the size of a printed slot-ring antenna for dual band
applications is proposed. The reduction in size is achieved by introducing proximity feed
technology with circular shaped feed line.
The minimum axial ratio of 0.3 dB is obtained at 1.27 GHz, which is the operating frequency
of the antenna. The size of the proposed antenna is reduced by about 50% compared to a
conventional Circular Polarization slot-ring antenna and it displays a Circular Polarization
bandwidth of about 2.5%. The simulated results are presented, and they are in good
agreement. The small size of the antenna makes it very suitable for use in modern
RF/microwave wireless systems which require compact, low cost, and high performance
circuits. Moreover, its Circular Polarization behavior makes it more applicable for
applications such as satellite communications.
The second geometry in the thesis involves the design of a compact circular microstrip
Antenna using semicircular ground plane attached on both sides of a square geometry. The
measured dual frequency band with center frequency is 3.0 GHz. The Antenna demonstrates
about 21% bandwidth with antenna gain of 1.8 dB in the radiation band, a return loss of less
than -10 dB is achieved in this work. The simulated results are in good agreement. The
proposed antenna is very reliable for use in modern wireless systems which require dual band
geometries having compact size, low insertion loss, high selectivity, and good antenna gain.
Overview about MIMO
Contents:
Diversity Definition
Why Diversity
Types of Diversity
Types of combining
MIMO Definition
Why MIMO ?
MIMO Advantages and disadvantages
Applications of MIMO
In an optical communications system, information from the source is encoded into electrical signals that can drive the transmitter. The transmitter consists of an LED or laser and is pulsed at the incoming frequency. The transmitter performs an EO conversion.
AM – Frequency spectrum – vector representation – power relations – generation of AM – DSB, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB AM Transmitter & Receiver; FM and PM – frequency spectrum – power relations : NBFM & WBFM, Generation of FM and DM, Armstrong method & Reactance modulations : FM & PM frequency.
An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple connected antennas which work together as a single antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves. The individual antenna elements are connected to a single receiver or transmitter by feedlines that feed the power to the elements in a specific phase relationship. The radio waves radiated by each individual antenna combine and superpose, adding together (interfering constructively) to enhance the power radiated in desired directions, and cancelling (interfering destructively) to reduce the power radiated in other directions. Similarly, when used for receiving, the separate radio frequency currents from the individual antennas combine in the receiver with the correct phase relationship to enhance signals received from the desired directions and cancel signals from undesired directions.
In this thesis two different circular shaped proximity feed antenna are undertaken, both in the
area of compact RF/microwave circuits design. The first design involves the design of a
Circular shaped radiating patch antenna with Semicircular ground plane and ring of circles. A
study of several circular shaped microstrip antennas reported in the past has been carried out.
In this research, a method of reducing the size of a printed slot-ring antenna for dual band
applications is proposed. The reduction in size is achieved by introducing proximity feed
technology with circular shaped feed line.
The minimum axial ratio of 0.3 dB is obtained at 1.27 GHz, which is the operating frequency
of the antenna. The size of the proposed antenna is reduced by about 50% compared to a
conventional Circular Polarization slot-ring antenna and it displays a Circular Polarization
bandwidth of about 2.5%. The simulated results are presented, and they are in good
agreement. The small size of the antenna makes it very suitable for use in modern
RF/microwave wireless systems which require compact, low cost, and high performance
circuits. Moreover, its Circular Polarization behavior makes it more applicable for
applications such as satellite communications.
The second geometry in the thesis involves the design of a compact circular microstrip
Antenna using semicircular ground plane attached on both sides of a square geometry. The
measured dual frequency band with center frequency is 3.0 GHz. The Antenna demonstrates
about 21% bandwidth with antenna gain of 1.8 dB in the radiation band, a return loss of less
than -10 dB is achieved in this work. The simulated results are in good agreement. The
proposed antenna is very reliable for use in modern wireless systems which require dual band
geometries having compact size, low insertion loss, high selectivity, and good antenna gain.
Overview about MIMO
Contents:
Diversity Definition
Why Diversity
Types of Diversity
Types of combining
MIMO Definition
Why MIMO ?
MIMO Advantages and disadvantages
Applications of MIMO
In an optical communications system, information from the source is encoded into electrical signals that can drive the transmitter. The transmitter consists of an LED or laser and is pulsed at the incoming frequency. The transmitter performs an EO conversion.
AM – Frequency spectrum – vector representation – power relations – generation of AM – DSB, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB AM Transmitter & Receiver; FM and PM – frequency spectrum – power relations : NBFM & WBFM, Generation of FM and DM, Armstrong method & Reactance modulations : FM & PM frequency.
The following resources come from the 2009/10 BEng (Hons) in Digital Communications & Electronics (course number 2ELE0064) from the University of Hertfordshire. All the mini projects are designed as level two modules of the undergraduate programmes.
The objective of this module is to have built communication links using existing AM modulation, PSK modulation and demodulation blocks, constructed AM modulators and constructed PSK modulators using operational function blocks based on their mathematical expressions, and conducted simulations of the links and modulators, all in Simulink®.
Induction Motor Tests Using MATLAB/SimulinkGirish Gupta
This project describes MATLAB/Simulink implementation of three induction motor tests, namely DC, No-Load, and Blocked-Rotor tests which are performed to identify equivalent circuit parameters of an Induction Machine. These simulation models are developed to support and enhance electric machinery education at the undergraduate level.
A Level Physics - Telecommunications - A Basic Introduction
Sound waves
Microphones
Receivers and transmitters
Amplitude modulation (am)
Frequency modulation (fm)
MICROWAVES
Satellite Communication
Optical fibers
Attenuation
The Public Switched Telephone Network
This ppt contains information about concepts of wireless communication, signal propagation effects, spread spectrum, cellular systems, multiple access systems.
This presentation deals with topics such as Electromagnetic Spectrum, Wireless Propagation, Signals, Signal propagation effects, Spread spectrum and cellular systems.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
1. INTRODUCTION
The process of changing some characteristic (e.g. amplitude, frequency, or phase) of
carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of a signal is known as Modulation. Is the process of
varying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal,
with respect to a modulating signal. This is done in a similar fashion as a musician may modulate
a tone (a periodic waveform) from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch.
The three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase
("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low
frequency signal to obtain the modulated signal. Typically a high-frequency sinusoid waveform
is used as carrier signal, but a square wave pulse train may also occur.
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This
new signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits of an un-modulated signal, especially during
transmission. If we look at a general function for a sinusoid:
f(t) = Asin(ωt + φ)
we can see that this sinusoid has 3 parameters that can be altered, to affect the shape of the
graph. The first term, A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude of the sinusoid. The next term, ω
is known as the frequency, and the last term, φ is known as the phase angle. All 3 parameters can
be altered to transmit data.
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation is known as the carrier signal, or simply
"the carrier". The signal that is being modulated is known as the "data signal". It is important to
notice that a simple sinusoidal carrier contains no information of it's own.
In other words we can say that modulation is used because the some data signals are not
always suitable for direct transmission, but the modulated signal may be more suitable
Carrier wave-This carrier wave is usually of much higher frequency than the input signal,
An electromagnetic wave that can be modulated, as in frequency, amplitude, or phase, to
transmit speech, music, images, or other.
Carriersignal Modulatingsignal Modulatedsignal
2. Non-sinusoidal modulation-
A sine wave at one frequency can separated from a sine wave at another frequency (or a cosine
wave at the same frequency) because the two signals are "orthogonal.
There are other sets of signals, such that every signal in the set is orthogonal to every other signal
in the set. A simple orthogonal set is time multiplexed division (TDM) -- only one transmitter is
active at any one time.
Other more complicated sets of orthogonal waveforms -- Walsh codes and various pseudonoise
codes such as Gold codes and maximum length sequences -- are also used in some
communication systems. The process of combining these waveforms with data signals is
sometimes called "modulation", because it is so very similar to the way modulation combines
sine waves are with data signals.
BLOACK DIAGRAM OF MODULATED WAVE RADIO BROADCASTING
TRANSMISSION: -
Transmitting Aerial Radio Wave
The general principle of radio broadcasting, transmission and reception. As a matter of
convenience , the entire arrangement can be divided into three parts viz. Transmission
transmitter of radio wave and radio receiver.
1.) Transmitter- A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an
antenna propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other
telecommunications.
Audio
Amplifier
Oscillator Modulator Radio
Receiver
Microphone
Receiving
Aerial
3. 2.) Microphone- A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike; both pronounced is an
acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. In 1876,
Emile Berliner invented the first microphone used as a telephone voice transmitter.
Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke
systems, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, FRS
radios, megaphones, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice,
speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock
sensors.
3.) Audio amplifier-An audio amplifier is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low-power
audio signals (signals composed primarily of frequencies between 20 - 20 000 Hz, the human
range of hearing) to a level suitable for driving loudspeakers and is the final stage in a typical
audio playback chain
4.) Electronic oscillator-An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a
repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in
innumerable electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include
signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and
quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games. A low-
frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates an AC waveform at a
frequency below ≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to
distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
5.) MODULATOR- The transmitter stage that supplies the modulating signal to modulated
amplifier stage or triggers, A device used to modulate an electromagnetic wave. Addition of
information (or the signal) to an electronic or optical signal carrier.
6.) Transmission of radio waves-Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation
of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic
radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the
vacuum of space. Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property
of the radiated waves, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves
pass an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the
conductor. This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry
information.
7.) Radio receiver- A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an
antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked
up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally converts
4. through demodulation and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as
sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values, navigational positions, etc.[
NEED FOR MODULATION
Practical Antenna Length (L)
When free space is the communication channel, antennas radiate and receiver the signal . Theory
shows that the antennas operate effective only when their dimensions are of the order of the
magnitude of wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
The audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Suppose a frequency of 20 kHz is to be
radiated directly into space. For this,
This is too long antenna to be constructed practically. So, it is impracticable to radiate audio
signal directly into space.
Let usnow calculate the lengthof the antennaif a carrierwave of say,1000kHz isusedto carry the
signal. Anantennaof 300m lengthcanbe easilyconstructed.
Wireless Communication
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried without wires (i.e.,)
radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the efficiency of
radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies
(>20kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in communication systems.
Operating Range
The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the frequency of the wave, the
greater is the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small, these cannot be
transmitted over large distances if radiated directly into space. The only practical solution is to
modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and permit the transmission to occur at
this high frequency (carrier frequency).
5. TYPES OF MODULATION
There are 3 different types of modulation:
1.) AMPLITUDE MODULATON- When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is
changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal , it is called amplitude modulation.
Fig. - Modulation depth
Advantages-
The advantage of usinga linearRFamplifieristhatthe smallerearlystagescanbe modulated,
whichonlyrequiresasmall audioamplifiertodrive the modulator.
Disadvantages-
The greatdisadvantage of thissystemisthatthe amplifierchainisless efficient,because ithas
to be lineartopreserve the modulation.Hence ClassCamplifiers cannotbe employed. Directcoupling
fromthe audioamplifierisalsopossible.
6. 2.) FREQUENCY MODULATION-When the frequency of the carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is called frequency modulation. The process of
FM can be made more illustrative if we consider numerical values.
Fig.- frequency modulation
Advantages-
1) It give noiseless reception.
2) it give high-fidelity reception
3) The operating range is quite large.
4) The efficiency of transmission is very large.
Application-
Broadcasting, Magnetic Tape Storage, Sound, Radio, Miscellaneous.
7. 3.) PHASE MODULATION- modulation that represents information as variations in
the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Unlike its more popular counterpart, frequency
modulation (FM), PM is not very widely used for radio transmissions. This is because it tends to
require more complex receiving hardware and there can be ambiguity problems in determining.
Fig.- Phase modulation
DEMODULATION- Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-
bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or
computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the information content
from the modulated carrier wave. These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio
receivers, but many other systems use many kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a
modem, which is a contraction of the terms modulator/demodulator.
Fig.- AM DEMODULATION
8. INDEX
INTRODUCTION
NON SINUSOIDAL MODULATION
BLOACK DIAGRAM OF MODULATED WAVE RADIO
BROADCASTING TRANSMISSION
NEED FORMODULATION
TYPES OF MODULATION
1. AMPLITUDEMODULATON
2. FREQUENCY MODULATION
3. PHASEMODULATION
REFERENC E
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere to ……………….(lecturer of EC
department) oriental institute of technology & science Jabalpur (MP).
From the very core of our heart .we express our respected and Mr. Manish
ranjan for his constant, generous help guidance and timely valuable suggestion
during the enter course of work. It has really been a very good experience to work
with his and his taught us new mythologies for systematic. His guidance, constant
cooperation and friendly behavior inspired us a lot.
AMIT KUMAR SAHU