This was an academic project done under a professional guide chosen by the college authority. This technical project was the
part of the curriculum of Graduation and it included laboratory making of an electronic device which will be able to detect radio frequencies emitting out from mobile and trace out any suspicious mobile communication activity in a restricted zone.
This document provides information on Telemetrics Equipments Pvt. Ltd., a company that manufactures underground cable fault locating equipment for electrical and telecom cables. The company ensures reliable operation of power and utility sectors by enabling prevention, detection, and accurate location of existing faults in power and telecom cables. Telemetrics has a manufacturing facility in Pune, India that conforms to international quality and safety standards. They provide cable fault locating solutions to customers across sectors such as power, telecom, railways, and others in India and other countries.
IRJET- IoT based Fault Finding of an Underground CableIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper on an IOT-based system for finding faults in underground cables. The system uses an Arduino board connected to sensors along an underground cable to detect changes in resistance caused by faults. When a fault is detected, the location is calculated based on resistance changes and displayed on an LCD screen in kilometers from the base station. The location data is also sent to a monitoring Android app via WiFi to allow remote monitoring. The system is intended to reduce the time and costs associated with locating and repairing underground cable faults compared to traditional methods.
LOW POWER SI CLASS E POWER AMPLIFIER AND RF SWITCH FOR HEALTH CAREieijjournal
This document summarizes the design of a 2.4 GHz class E power amplifier and RF switch for healthcare applications. The power amplifier was designed using Cadence software with a 0.18um CMOS process and can output 16dBm of power. The RF switch was designed using Cadence with a 180nm SOI process. Simulation results showed the power amplifier had over 50dB of gain and the S11 was below -10dB. The RF switch had over 1.36dB of insertion loss and 58.5dB of isolation at 5GHz. Both the power amplifier and RF switch met the design requirements for wireless sensor networks for healthcare applications.
Detection of Underground Cable Fault using ArduinoIRJET Journal
This document describes a system to detect faults in underground cables using an Arduino. It uses Ohm's law - a voltage is applied to the cable and the current measured to determine faults. Resistors represent distances along the cable where fault switches can induce faults. When a fault occurs, the voltage change is read by the Arduino and the fault location displayed on an LCD in kilometers. The system can detect common fault types like line-ground and line-line faults. It is meant to more easily locate underground cable faults compared to traditional methods that require digging to find faults.
1. The document describes an underground cable fault distance locator project that uses a microcontroller to determine the distance of faults in underground power cables.
2. The project uses a bank of resistors to represent an underground cable carrying power. When a fault occurs, the voltage drop across the cable varies depending on the fault location, allowing the distance to be calculated.
3. The microcontroller measures the voltage drop, performs calculations, and displays the fault distance on an LCD screen. It can also send the fault information via GSM to notify relevant parties.
The document discusses a student project on underground cable fault detection. The project aims to analyze different types of underground cables (red, yellow, blue) using a timer, counter and op-amps to detect faults and estimate cable life. Preliminary results show differences in the frequency responses of the cables, which could help identify faults in a low-cost way. The project setup uses a step-down transformer, rectifier, timer/counter chips and LEDs connected to plastic pipes representing the cables.
Design and Detection of Underground Cable Fault Using Raspberry Pi and IoT Sy...ijtsrd
This document describes a proposed system to detect and locate faults in underground power cables using a Raspberry Pi and Internet of Things (IoT) technology. The system uses current transformers to measure changes in current caused by faults, which are then processed by a microcontroller to calculate the distance to the fault. The Raspberry Pi sends the fault details over the internet where they are displayed. The system aims to provide faster fault detection and more accessible fault information than existing methods. It works on the principle of current transformer theory and uses the Raspberry Pi's processing power and ability to connect to the internet to remotely monitor and locate underground cable faults.
The document discusses the design of an internally compensated linear low dropout (LDO) voltage regulator in a low cost pseudo BiCMOS process. It aims to design an LDO regulator with improved stability that works with a wide range of output capacitor types and values, including very low or very high equivalent series resistance. The design and implementation process is described, including compensation techniques, stability analysis, and layout challenges in the pseudo BiCMOS process. Simulation results are presented to demonstrate the performance improvements over traditional LDO designs.
This document provides information on Telemetrics Equipments Pvt. Ltd., a company that manufactures underground cable fault locating equipment for electrical and telecom cables. The company ensures reliable operation of power and utility sectors by enabling prevention, detection, and accurate location of existing faults in power and telecom cables. Telemetrics has a manufacturing facility in Pune, India that conforms to international quality and safety standards. They provide cable fault locating solutions to customers across sectors such as power, telecom, railways, and others in India and other countries.
IRJET- IoT based Fault Finding of an Underground CableIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper on an IOT-based system for finding faults in underground cables. The system uses an Arduino board connected to sensors along an underground cable to detect changes in resistance caused by faults. When a fault is detected, the location is calculated based on resistance changes and displayed on an LCD screen in kilometers from the base station. The location data is also sent to a monitoring Android app via WiFi to allow remote monitoring. The system is intended to reduce the time and costs associated with locating and repairing underground cable faults compared to traditional methods.
LOW POWER SI CLASS E POWER AMPLIFIER AND RF SWITCH FOR HEALTH CAREieijjournal
This document summarizes the design of a 2.4 GHz class E power amplifier and RF switch for healthcare applications. The power amplifier was designed using Cadence software with a 0.18um CMOS process and can output 16dBm of power. The RF switch was designed using Cadence with a 180nm SOI process. Simulation results showed the power amplifier had over 50dB of gain and the S11 was below -10dB. The RF switch had over 1.36dB of insertion loss and 58.5dB of isolation at 5GHz. Both the power amplifier and RF switch met the design requirements for wireless sensor networks for healthcare applications.
Detection of Underground Cable Fault using ArduinoIRJET Journal
This document describes a system to detect faults in underground cables using an Arduino. It uses Ohm's law - a voltage is applied to the cable and the current measured to determine faults. Resistors represent distances along the cable where fault switches can induce faults. When a fault occurs, the voltage change is read by the Arduino and the fault location displayed on an LCD in kilometers. The system can detect common fault types like line-ground and line-line faults. It is meant to more easily locate underground cable faults compared to traditional methods that require digging to find faults.
1. The document describes an underground cable fault distance locator project that uses a microcontroller to determine the distance of faults in underground power cables.
2. The project uses a bank of resistors to represent an underground cable carrying power. When a fault occurs, the voltage drop across the cable varies depending on the fault location, allowing the distance to be calculated.
3. The microcontroller measures the voltage drop, performs calculations, and displays the fault distance on an LCD screen. It can also send the fault information via GSM to notify relevant parties.
The document discusses a student project on underground cable fault detection. The project aims to analyze different types of underground cables (red, yellow, blue) using a timer, counter and op-amps to detect faults and estimate cable life. Preliminary results show differences in the frequency responses of the cables, which could help identify faults in a low-cost way. The project setup uses a step-down transformer, rectifier, timer/counter chips and LEDs connected to plastic pipes representing the cables.
Design and Detection of Underground Cable Fault Using Raspberry Pi and IoT Sy...ijtsrd
This document describes a proposed system to detect and locate faults in underground power cables using a Raspberry Pi and Internet of Things (IoT) technology. The system uses current transformers to measure changes in current caused by faults, which are then processed by a microcontroller to calculate the distance to the fault. The Raspberry Pi sends the fault details over the internet where they are displayed. The system aims to provide faster fault detection and more accessible fault information than existing methods. It works on the principle of current transformer theory and uses the Raspberry Pi's processing power and ability to connect to the internet to remotely monitor and locate underground cable faults.
The document discusses the design of an internally compensated linear low dropout (LDO) voltage regulator in a low cost pseudo BiCMOS process. It aims to design an LDO regulator with improved stability that works with a wide range of output capacitor types and values, including very low or very high equivalent series resistance. The design and implementation process is described, including compensation techniques, stability analysis, and layout challenges in the pseudo BiCMOS process. Simulation results are presented to demonstrate the performance improvements over traditional LDO designs.
Detection and Location of Faults in 11KV Underground Cable by using Continuou...IOSR Journals
This document presents a technique for detecting, classifying, and locating faults on an 11kV underground cable system using continuous wavelet transform (CWT). Faults generate high frequency signals that propagate along the cable. CWT is applied to extract these signals and analyze them to determine the fault location based on the travel time of the signals. A 100km long cable is modeled in MATLAB and faults are simulated at different locations. CWT effectively extracts the high frequency components from the fault signals. The results show that CWT can accurately detect and locate faults by analyzing the extracted signal components. Fault location is determined by measuring the time difference between peaks in the CWT coefficients.
Arduino based underground cable fault detectionIsa Rachman
1. The document describes an Arduino-based system to detect the location of faults in underground cables. It measures the resistance between cables to detect short circuits and capacitance between wires to detect open circuits.
2. The proposed system uses Ohm's law to determine the location of short circuits by measuring changes in voltage across resistors representing different cable lengths.
3. The Arduino code measures the resistance across the cable, calculates the fault location based on the cable resistance per meter, and displays the results on an LCD screen.
Digital underground cable fault locator (dufcl).ITODO Victory
This document describes the design and construction of a digital underground cable fault locator. It begins with an introduction and background sections on underground cable anatomy, aging mechanisms, fault types and location methods. It then presents the block diagram of the circuit, including the locator circuit, analog-to-digital converter using LM393 comparators, and PIC16F84A microcontroller. The design and analysis section provides details on the detector circuit, analog-to-digital conversion, inputs, output using a 7-segment display, and program for operation. The document concludes with programming the PIC microcontroller, hardware construction, and testing of the fault locator device.
underground cable fault location using aruino,gsm&gps Mohd Sohail
This document describes a project to locate underground cable faults using an Arduino, GSM, and GPS. The system applies a low DC voltage to the cable and measures the voltage drop to determine the location of any faults. When a fault is detected, an SMS message is sent with the GPS coordinates. Key components include an Arduino microcontroller, LCD display, GSM and GPS modules, resistors to represent cable lengths, and relays. The software is written in C/C++ and uploaded to the Arduino. The system provides low-cost fault detection for underground cables over long distances.
There is great need to limit the use of cell phone at particular places
and at particular times. Hence, the use of intelligent cell phone detector is
guaranteed. This work concentrates in designing a system that will dictate the
presence of GSM signals from an unauthorized user in restricted areas which
will in turn trigger another device to restrict the user from service
This paper proposes fault location model for underground power cable using microcontroller. The aim of this project is to determine the di stance of underground cable fault from base station in kilometers. This project uses the simple c oncept of ohm�s law.When any fault like short circuit occurs,voltage drop will vary depending on the length of fault in cable,since the current varies. A set of resistors are ther efore used to represen t the cable and a dc vol tage is fed at one end and the fault is detected by detecting the change in voltage using a analog to voltage converter and a microcontroller is used to make the necessary calculations so that the fault distance is displayed on the LCD display.
This document discusses the benefits of configurable Kelvin technology for optimizing semiconductor component testing. Kelvin testing allows for more precise measurements by using a four-wire method to separate the force and sense contacts. This eliminates errors from contact resistance and improves accuracy. A configurable Kelvin system was developed that standardizes the technology, reduces costs, and allows routing flexibility on load boards. It provides reliable contacts even with smaller device pads through redundant sense contact tines.
This document is an operating manual for the CableSniffer product that provides instructions for locating underground cable faults. It describes the kit contents, safety considerations, and procedures for using the CableSniffer device with either the searcher bar system or drill system to produce a sample hole. It also details the device components, display, battery charging, and specifications. The manual provides guidance for operators on safety and operating the CableSniffer to accurately locate cable faults.
ARDUINO MICROCONTROLLER BASED UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DISTANCE LOCATORIAEME Publication
1. The document describes an Arduino microcontroller-based device for locating faults in underground cable lines. It uses basic Ohm's law to detect faults by measuring variations in current with respect to resistance at different points along the cable.
2. The device has several units - a power supply, cable unit with switches to induce faults, control unit to process signals from the cable unit, tripping unit to detect faulty phases, and a display unit to show fault characteristics and distance on an LCD screen.
3. Common underground cable faults include short circuits, open circuits, and earth faults between phases and ground, which can be caused by insulation damage, loose connections, and other factors related to aging of cable materials over time
Detection of fault location in underground cable using arduinoChirag Lakhani
This document describes a project to detect the location of faults in underground cables using an Arduino board. It discusses underground cables versus overhead cables, common types of underground cable faults, and methods for detecting faults including offline and online methods. It then introduces the circuit used, which works by measuring resistance changes along cable phases to determine the distance to a fault. Key components are described including relays, a relay driver, and the Arduino code to control components and display results.
Precise kilometer calculation by underground cable fault detectorvivekmv716
The document describes an undergraduate student project to locate faults in underground power cables. It presents the project overview, block diagram, components used including a microcontroller, ADC, relays, and LCD. Resistors are used to simulate cable lengths and faults are induced using switches. The voltage drop across resistors is measured and the distance displayed on the LCD based on calculations done by the microcontroller. Relays are used to select cable phases and the system is powered by a 5V regulator.
This document provides an overview of fingerprint recognition as a biometric authentication method. It discusses the uniqueness of fingerprints and how they remain unchanged throughout a person's life. The document then describes how optical fingerprint sensors capture digital images of fingerprints using visible light. It explains some of the advantages and disadvantages of this sensing technique. Finally, it provides high-level descriptions of the components used in a fingerprint recognition circuit, including the microcontroller, reset circuitry, crystals, and an LCD display for output. The goal of the circuit is to authenticate a person's identity by matching their fingerprint to a stored template.
This document provides a summary of an individual's qualifications and experience. It outlines their educational background including a B.E. in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. It also details over 10 years of professional experience working on various electrical projects in India and abroad, including testing and commissioning of protection relays, switchgear, and control panels up to 400kV. Specific roles have involved retrofitting old relays with new numerical relays, conducting training programs, and arranging shutdowns to complete work.
Green Telecom & IT: Vinod sharma : Green TelecomBellLabs
This document discusses communication systems powered by renewable energy sources. It presents three key points:
1) Wireless networks consume a significant amount of energy, motivating the need for green communication techniques.
2) Fundamental limits on communication are explored for single nodes and networks powered by unpredictable renewable sources like solar and wind.
3) MAC protocols, scheduling, and routing algorithms are proposed to maximize throughput in energy harvesting multihop networks.
Polarization maintaining patch cords are built with polarization maintaining panda fiber and connectors like FC, SC, and LC. They feature low insertion loss, high extinction ratio, and high return loss. The slow or fast axis of the fiber can be aligned to the connector key. Specifications include insertion loss less than 0.5dB, optical return loss of 50-60dB, and extinction ratio greater than 23dB. They use PM panda fiber and can operate from -40 to 80 degrees Celsius.
This document describes the design of a high-precision complex quadrature modulator. It proposes using a Harvey-type quadrature mixer circuit which can compensate for phase errors through a common transconductor. Simulations show the circuit improves the image rejection ratio to over 100dB by decreasing the effects of local oscillator phase errors. Future work includes designing a wideband polyphase filter, optimizing for low power consumption, and experimental fabrication and evaluation of chips.
Nobody is save against potential electricity failures. It does not take much for a current that serves us well to bring extreme danger to our everyday life. The most reasonable way to reduce the risk is to use a protection equipment RCCB (residual current device).
Protections:
IRJET- Design and Development of a Programmable High Current Laser Diode ...IRJET Journal
The document describes the design and development of a programmable high current laser diode driver for fiber laser systems. The laser diode driver can generate a constant current between 0.5A to 12A set either through an Arduino microcontroller or potentiometer. This ensures the laser diode receives a stable current despite variation in input voltage or laser diode resistance, maintaining the optical output power. The laser diode driver was built with microcontroller and LCD interface to allow programming the output current through a keypad. It can drive laser diodes for continuous wave fiber laser systems within their power specifications.
IJERD (www.ijerd.com) International Journal of Engineering Research and Devel...IJERD Editor
This document summarizes a research paper on developing a wearable wireless sensor network using accelerometers to track human motion without restraints. Small sensors containing MEMS accelerometers and flex sensors would be attached to limbs to track their movement wirelessly. This allows for unrestrained motion monitoring and portable use. The system could have applications in medical areas like rehabilitation and sports science to analyze player behavior.
Analysis of Fault Detection and its Location using Microcontroller for Underg...IRJET Journal
1. The document proposes a system to detect faults in underground cables using IoT technology to identify the exact location of faults.
2. The system uses a potential divider network laid across underground cables to detect changes in voltage when faults occur. These voltage changes are sensed by a microcontroller which updates the fault information online.
3. Detecting faults in underground cables is challenging, as the entire cable line may need to be dug up to locate issues. The proposed system aims to simplify fault detection and location, saving time and money in the repair process.
This document is a mini project report submitted by three students (Rahul Vaity, Sumedh Vartak, and Rohit Vasta) for their course on mini projects. It outlines their project to build a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses an antenna to detect radio frequency signals from nearby mobile phones and triggers an alarm with a blinking LED. The report includes the circuit diagram, descriptions of the components used, and the basic working principle of how it detects mobile phones. It was submitted under the guidance of their professor Shripad Kulkarni.
Detection and Location of Faults in 11KV Underground Cable by using Continuou...IOSR Journals
This document presents a technique for detecting, classifying, and locating faults on an 11kV underground cable system using continuous wavelet transform (CWT). Faults generate high frequency signals that propagate along the cable. CWT is applied to extract these signals and analyze them to determine the fault location based on the travel time of the signals. A 100km long cable is modeled in MATLAB and faults are simulated at different locations. CWT effectively extracts the high frequency components from the fault signals. The results show that CWT can accurately detect and locate faults by analyzing the extracted signal components. Fault location is determined by measuring the time difference between peaks in the CWT coefficients.
Arduino based underground cable fault detectionIsa Rachman
1. The document describes an Arduino-based system to detect the location of faults in underground cables. It measures the resistance between cables to detect short circuits and capacitance between wires to detect open circuits.
2. The proposed system uses Ohm's law to determine the location of short circuits by measuring changes in voltage across resistors representing different cable lengths.
3. The Arduino code measures the resistance across the cable, calculates the fault location based on the cable resistance per meter, and displays the results on an LCD screen.
Digital underground cable fault locator (dufcl).ITODO Victory
This document describes the design and construction of a digital underground cable fault locator. It begins with an introduction and background sections on underground cable anatomy, aging mechanisms, fault types and location methods. It then presents the block diagram of the circuit, including the locator circuit, analog-to-digital converter using LM393 comparators, and PIC16F84A microcontroller. The design and analysis section provides details on the detector circuit, analog-to-digital conversion, inputs, output using a 7-segment display, and program for operation. The document concludes with programming the PIC microcontroller, hardware construction, and testing of the fault locator device.
underground cable fault location using aruino,gsm&gps Mohd Sohail
This document describes a project to locate underground cable faults using an Arduino, GSM, and GPS. The system applies a low DC voltage to the cable and measures the voltage drop to determine the location of any faults. When a fault is detected, an SMS message is sent with the GPS coordinates. Key components include an Arduino microcontroller, LCD display, GSM and GPS modules, resistors to represent cable lengths, and relays. The software is written in C/C++ and uploaded to the Arduino. The system provides low-cost fault detection for underground cables over long distances.
There is great need to limit the use of cell phone at particular places
and at particular times. Hence, the use of intelligent cell phone detector is
guaranteed. This work concentrates in designing a system that will dictate the
presence of GSM signals from an unauthorized user in restricted areas which
will in turn trigger another device to restrict the user from service
This paper proposes fault location model for underground power cable using microcontroller. The aim of this project is to determine the di stance of underground cable fault from base station in kilometers. This project uses the simple c oncept of ohm�s law.When any fault like short circuit occurs,voltage drop will vary depending on the length of fault in cable,since the current varies. A set of resistors are ther efore used to represen t the cable and a dc vol tage is fed at one end and the fault is detected by detecting the change in voltage using a analog to voltage converter and a microcontroller is used to make the necessary calculations so that the fault distance is displayed on the LCD display.
This document discusses the benefits of configurable Kelvin technology for optimizing semiconductor component testing. Kelvin testing allows for more precise measurements by using a four-wire method to separate the force and sense contacts. This eliminates errors from contact resistance and improves accuracy. A configurable Kelvin system was developed that standardizes the technology, reduces costs, and allows routing flexibility on load boards. It provides reliable contacts even with smaller device pads through redundant sense contact tines.
This document is an operating manual for the CableSniffer product that provides instructions for locating underground cable faults. It describes the kit contents, safety considerations, and procedures for using the CableSniffer device with either the searcher bar system or drill system to produce a sample hole. It also details the device components, display, battery charging, and specifications. The manual provides guidance for operators on safety and operating the CableSniffer to accurately locate cable faults.
ARDUINO MICROCONTROLLER BASED UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT DISTANCE LOCATORIAEME Publication
1. The document describes an Arduino microcontroller-based device for locating faults in underground cable lines. It uses basic Ohm's law to detect faults by measuring variations in current with respect to resistance at different points along the cable.
2. The device has several units - a power supply, cable unit with switches to induce faults, control unit to process signals from the cable unit, tripping unit to detect faulty phases, and a display unit to show fault characteristics and distance on an LCD screen.
3. Common underground cable faults include short circuits, open circuits, and earth faults between phases and ground, which can be caused by insulation damage, loose connections, and other factors related to aging of cable materials over time
Detection of fault location in underground cable using arduinoChirag Lakhani
This document describes a project to detect the location of faults in underground cables using an Arduino board. It discusses underground cables versus overhead cables, common types of underground cable faults, and methods for detecting faults including offline and online methods. It then introduces the circuit used, which works by measuring resistance changes along cable phases to determine the distance to a fault. Key components are described including relays, a relay driver, and the Arduino code to control components and display results.
Precise kilometer calculation by underground cable fault detectorvivekmv716
The document describes an undergraduate student project to locate faults in underground power cables. It presents the project overview, block diagram, components used including a microcontroller, ADC, relays, and LCD. Resistors are used to simulate cable lengths and faults are induced using switches. The voltage drop across resistors is measured and the distance displayed on the LCD based on calculations done by the microcontroller. Relays are used to select cable phases and the system is powered by a 5V regulator.
This document provides an overview of fingerprint recognition as a biometric authentication method. It discusses the uniqueness of fingerprints and how they remain unchanged throughout a person's life. The document then describes how optical fingerprint sensors capture digital images of fingerprints using visible light. It explains some of the advantages and disadvantages of this sensing technique. Finally, it provides high-level descriptions of the components used in a fingerprint recognition circuit, including the microcontroller, reset circuitry, crystals, and an LCD display for output. The goal of the circuit is to authenticate a person's identity by matching their fingerprint to a stored template.
This document provides a summary of an individual's qualifications and experience. It outlines their educational background including a B.E. in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. It also details over 10 years of professional experience working on various electrical projects in India and abroad, including testing and commissioning of protection relays, switchgear, and control panels up to 400kV. Specific roles have involved retrofitting old relays with new numerical relays, conducting training programs, and arranging shutdowns to complete work.
Green Telecom & IT: Vinod sharma : Green TelecomBellLabs
This document discusses communication systems powered by renewable energy sources. It presents three key points:
1) Wireless networks consume a significant amount of energy, motivating the need for green communication techniques.
2) Fundamental limits on communication are explored for single nodes and networks powered by unpredictable renewable sources like solar and wind.
3) MAC protocols, scheduling, and routing algorithms are proposed to maximize throughput in energy harvesting multihop networks.
Polarization maintaining patch cords are built with polarization maintaining panda fiber and connectors like FC, SC, and LC. They feature low insertion loss, high extinction ratio, and high return loss. The slow or fast axis of the fiber can be aligned to the connector key. Specifications include insertion loss less than 0.5dB, optical return loss of 50-60dB, and extinction ratio greater than 23dB. They use PM panda fiber and can operate from -40 to 80 degrees Celsius.
This document describes the design of a high-precision complex quadrature modulator. It proposes using a Harvey-type quadrature mixer circuit which can compensate for phase errors through a common transconductor. Simulations show the circuit improves the image rejection ratio to over 100dB by decreasing the effects of local oscillator phase errors. Future work includes designing a wideband polyphase filter, optimizing for low power consumption, and experimental fabrication and evaluation of chips.
Nobody is save against potential electricity failures. It does not take much for a current that serves us well to bring extreme danger to our everyday life. The most reasonable way to reduce the risk is to use a protection equipment RCCB (residual current device).
Protections:
IRJET- Design and Development of a Programmable High Current Laser Diode ...IRJET Journal
The document describes the design and development of a programmable high current laser diode driver for fiber laser systems. The laser diode driver can generate a constant current between 0.5A to 12A set either through an Arduino microcontroller or potentiometer. This ensures the laser diode receives a stable current despite variation in input voltage or laser diode resistance, maintaining the optical output power. The laser diode driver was built with microcontroller and LCD interface to allow programming the output current through a keypad. It can drive laser diodes for continuous wave fiber laser systems within their power specifications.
IJERD (www.ijerd.com) International Journal of Engineering Research and Devel...IJERD Editor
This document summarizes a research paper on developing a wearable wireless sensor network using accelerometers to track human motion without restraints. Small sensors containing MEMS accelerometers and flex sensors would be attached to limbs to track their movement wirelessly. This allows for unrestrained motion monitoring and portable use. The system could have applications in medical areas like rehabilitation and sports science to analyze player behavior.
Analysis of Fault Detection and its Location using Microcontroller for Underg...IRJET Journal
1. The document proposes a system to detect faults in underground cables using IoT technology to identify the exact location of faults.
2. The system uses a potential divider network laid across underground cables to detect changes in voltage when faults occur. These voltage changes are sensed by a microcontroller which updates the fault information online.
3. Detecting faults in underground cables is challenging, as the entire cable line may need to be dug up to locate issues. The proposed system aims to simplify fault detection and location, saving time and money in the repair process.
This document is a mini project report submitted by three students (Rahul Vaity, Sumedh Vartak, and Rohit Vasta) for their course on mini projects. It outlines their project to build a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses an antenna to detect radio frequency signals from nearby mobile phones and triggers an alarm with a blinking LED. The report includes the circuit diagram, descriptions of the components used, and the basic working principle of how it detects mobile phones. It was submitted under the guidance of their professor Shripad Kulkarni.
This document describes a thermistor temperature sensing alarm circuit. The circuit uses common electronic components like transistors, diodes, resistors and a buzzer to monitor temperature and raise an alarm if the temperature exceeds a set threshold. When the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor changes in a known way allowing the circuit to sense temperature changes. If the temperature goes above the threshold, the circuit activates the buzzer to alert the user. The circuit provides a low-cost solution for temperature monitoring in industrial and other applications.
The document describes a system to identify the location of faults in underground electrical cables using an Internet of Things (IoT) platform. The system uses resistors to represent the underground cable and detects changes in voltage across the resistors to determine the location of short circuits. When a short circuit occurs, the voltage data is sent to a microcontroller and IoT module to display the fault location. The system allows utilities to locate cable faults without disconnecting the cable from the grid.
IRJET- Design and Development of Underground Cable Fault Detection and Locali...IRJET Journal
The document describes a system to detect and localize faults in underground cables using IoT. It can detect both open and short circuit faults. For open circuits, it measures the cable's capacitance, which varies linearly with the length of the fault. For short circuits, it measures the cable's inductance, which also varies linearly with the fault length. A microcontroller processes the capacitance and inductance measurements and displays the fault location on an LCD and webpage. This allows easy, low-cost detection and localization of underground cable faults.
This document is a project report on a microcontroller based traffic light controller. It describes the development of a traffic light controller that uses a microcontroller and LEDs to automatically control traffic lights on a centralized basis. The microcontroller is programmed to adjust the timing and phasing of the traffic signals to meet changing traffic conditions. The circuit uses basic electronic components like an LED for the traffic lights and a microcontroller for automatic signal changing after a preset time interval. It aims to provide a reliable and cost-effective traffic light control solution.
This document is a project report submitted by students of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering department at SVS Group of Institutions. The project is about developing a mobile phone detector circuit. The circuit uses components like resistors, capacitors, transistors, LEDs, piezo buzzers, and ICs to detect incoming/outgoing calls, SMS, and video transmissions from an activated mobile phone within 1.5 meters. When a signal is detected, the circuit produces an alarm beep and LED blink until the signal stops. The report describes the circuit diagram and components used. It discusses how the circuit works and potential applications of the mobile phone detector.
Fabrication Of Low Power Audio Amplifier Using IC LM386Kapil Tapsi
This document describes the fabrication of an audio amplifier using the IC-LM386. It provides the circuit diagram and lists the components required, including the IC-LM386, capacitors, resistors, potentiometer, battery, speaker, and PCB board. It then explains the working principle of the circuit, describing the role of each pin of the IC-LM386 and how it functions as an audio amplifier. Details of the components used such as the IC, PCB board, capacitors, and resistors are also provided.
This document discusses two technologies for wireless power transfer: Powercast technology and eCoupled technology. Powercast technology uses radio frequency waves to transmit power over short ranges to power devices with power harvester receivers. eCoupled technology uses electromagnetic coupling to transmit power over mid-range distances. The document proposes that these technologies could enable wireless charging of devices like laptops, phones, and robots without needing wires. Powercast in particular is described as using a powercaster transmitter and power harvester receivers to wirelessly charge low-power devices within range.
AUTOMATIC LIGHT & DARK SENSING SYSTEM WITH MOSQUITO REPELLENT CIRCUITShahrukh Javed
DESCRIPTION
It is a simple and powerful concept, which uses transistor (BC 547) as a switch to switch ON and OFF the light automatically & a Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) which senses the light, made from a piece of exposed semiconductor material i.e cadmium sulphide, that changes its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms, when light hits the device, the photons give electrons energy by creating hole-electron pairs in the material. This makes them jump into the conductive band and thereby conduct electricity.
The circuit automatically switches ON lights when the light goes below the visible region & automatically switches OFF lights when light fall on it, by using a sensor which senses the light just like our eyes.
Also, the circuit has a long response time requiring many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
TEAM MEMBER
SHAHRUKH JAVED
MOHAMMED HASSAN M
For more log on to: http://shahrukhjaved.webs.com/apps/blog/
E-mial: shahrukh.tjit14@gmail.com
Underground Cable Fault Detection Using IOTIRJET Journal
This document discusses a system to detect faults in underground cable lines using IoT. It proposes using a microprocessor, LCD display, fault sensing circuit module, LoRa module, and power supply to detect the location and type of fault (single line to ground, double line to ground, or three phase faults). The system measures voltage changes across series resistors when a short circuit occurs to determine the fault location. It can display the fault location and phase on the LCD and transmit the data over WiFi. The document reviews literature on condition monitoring of underground cables, current transformer saturation effects, and comparing optical and magnetic current transformers.
This document describes a system to detect cable faults using IoT. The system uses an Arduino microcontroller connected to a resistor network laid across underground cables. When a fault occurs, it creates a short circuit between two cable lines. This generates a specific voltage based on the resistor combination. The Arduino senses this voltage and determines the distance to the fault location. It displays the fault data on an LCD screen and transfers it over a network to a web page. The goal is to easily detect exact fault locations to simplify cable repair work compared to existing methods that require digging up entire cable lines.
In Today's Modern World, Machine the Heart of Electrical Engineering have a lot of Applications such as Controlling, Monitoring, Maintenance,etc So for this Application for wide and Easy control of Speed and Other Factors,here Wireless Control of both AC and DC operated motor are discussed, Sometimes it's difficult to control machine at site but by using Wireless Mode we can Control the same from anywhere and anytime.
IOT BASED UNDER GROUND CABLE FAULT DETECTION AND LOCATORIRJET Journal
This document describes a project to detect faults in underground cables using IoT. It begins with an abstract that outlines using Arduino to detect breaks in underground wires and display the fault location in kilometers on an LCD screen. It then provides background on issues with locating faults in underground cables and the objectives of the project. The document outlines the various components used - Arduino UNO, GPS module, GSM module, LCD display and power supply. It presents the block diagram and discusses how Ohm's law is used to detect changes in resistance and voltage to identify faults. The conclusion states that the proposed system can accurately locate faults to allow for efficient repair and reduce costs.
A MOBILE PHONE DETECTOR by introduction .pptxShraddha945311
This document describes a mobile phone detector circuit that can be used to detect the presence of activated mobile phones. The circuit uses a CA3130 IC, resistors, capacitors, a transistor, LED, battery, and breadboard. It works by using the op-amp as an RF signal detector and the transistor to indicate when a phone call or text is received by activating the LED. The circuit has applications for detecting phones in examination halls or confidential meetings. It is low cost, easy to operate, and has fast response. However, it cannot detect powered off phones.
A low power front end analog multiplexing unit for 12 lead ecg signal acquisi...VLSICS Design
The design of CMOS analog circuitry for acquiring 12 lead ECG is presented. The existing methods
employ separate multiplexers and associated circuitry for signal acquisition operating at typical voltage of
± 5V. The proposed system employs dynamic threshold logic to achieve low power, wide dynamic range
good linearity with a supply voltage of 0.4V. The power dissipation obtained was 22.12μW. Utilizing the
dynamic threshold logic the proposed circuitry is implemented with 0.18μm CMOS technology. This ECG
signal processor is highly suitable for wearable applications of long term cardiac monitoring.
This document summarizes techniques for locating faults in underground power cables. It discusses using a microcontroller to determine the distance of a fault from the base station in kilometers by applying a low DC voltage through resistors representing the cable and detecting voltage drops. Tracer and terminal methods for fault location are described. Using fiber optic distributed temperature sensors and neural networks for fault identification are also summarized. The document provides block diagrams of the proposed underground cable fault distance system conveyed over GSM and its components including the power supply, microcontroller, rectifier, voltage regulator, and relay.
This document is a project report submitted by Renu Gupta to fulfill requirements for a Master's degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The project involves realizing various signal processing and generating circuits using an Operational Trans-Resistance Amplifier (OTRA). The OTRA is implemented using commercially available CFOA ICs. Circuits designed include filters, oscillators, and an active inductor-based LC oscillator. Theoretical results are verified through PSPICE simulations and experiments using practical circuits assembled with CFOA ICs. The report documents the work conducted under the guidance of Dr. Neeta Pandey.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Design and optimization of ion propulsion dronebjmsejournal
Electric propulsion technology is widely used in many kinds of vehicles in recent years, and aircrafts are no exception. Technically, UAVs are electrically propelled but tend to produce a significant amount of noise and vibrations. Ion propulsion technology for drones is a potential solution to this problem. Ion propulsion technology is proven to be feasible in the earth’s atmosphere. The study presented in this article shows the design of EHD thrusters and power supply for ion propulsion drones along with performance optimization of high-voltage power supply for endurance in earth’s atmosphere.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
An improved modulation technique suitable for a three level flying capacitor ...IJECEIAES
This research paper introduces an innovative modulation technique for controlling a 3-level flying capacitor multilevel inverter (FCMLI), aiming to streamline the modulation process in contrast to conventional methods. The proposed
simplified modulation technique paves the way for more straightforward and
efficient control of multilevel inverters, enabling their widespread adoption and
integration into modern power electronic systems. Through the amalgamation of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) with a high-frequency square wave
pulse, this controlling technique attains energy equilibrium across the coupling
capacitor. The modulation scheme incorporates a simplified switching pattern
and a decreased count of voltage references, thereby simplifying the control
algorithm.
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CERTIFICATE
Thisisto certify that the synopsisentitled
“MOBILE PHONE TRACER”
issubmittedby
ARGHYA SADHUKHAN
DIBYENDU KHAMRAI
SOURAV DEY
TRIDRIK DEY
in partialfulfillment of the requirement forthe
awardof thedegree Bachelorin Technology on
ElectronicsandCommunication Engineering
from
NETAJI SUBHASH EENGINEERING COLLEGE
Kolkata forthe academicyear2014-2015.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of the
task would be put incomplete without the mention of the people who
made it possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crown
all the efforts with success.
We express our heartfelt thanks to, Prof. C.R.Dutta, HOD,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Netaji
Subhash Engineering College.
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Aparajita
Datta Sinha, Project guide for his able guidance and useful suggestions,
which helped us in completing the project work, in time.
We also thank Mr. Tapash Kumar Dawn, Technical Assistant,
Project Lab(ECE) and all the staff members of Electronics and
Communication Engineering department for their valuable support and
generous advice.
Finally thanks to all our friends for their continuous support
and enthusiastic help.
ARGHYA SADHUKHAN
DIBYENDU KHAMRAI
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SOURAV DEY
TRIDRIK DEY
ABSTRACT
This handy, pocket-size mobile transmission detectoror
sniffer can sense the presence of an activatedmobile cell phone
from a distanceof one and-a-half meters. So it can be used to
prevent use of mobile phones in examinationhalls,confidential
rooms, etc. It is also useful for detecting the use of mobile
phone for Spying and unauthorizedvideo transmission. The
circuit can detect the incoming and outgoing calls, SMS and
video transmission even if the mobile phone is kept in the silent
mode. The moment the Bug detects RF transmission signal from
an activatedmobilephone, it starts soundinga beep alarm and
the LED blinks. The alarm continues untilthe signal transmission
ceases. Assemble the circuit on a general purpose PCB as
compact as possible and enclose in a small boxlike junk mobile
case. As mentionedearlier, capacitorC3 should havea lead
length of 18 mm with lead spacing of 8 mm. Carefully solder the
capacitorin standing positionwith equalspacing of the leads.
The response can be optimized by trimming the lead length of
C3 for the desired frequency. We may use a short telescopic
type antenna.
We use the miniature12V battery of a remote control and
a small buzzer to make the gadget pocket-size. The unit will give
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the warning indicationif someone uses Mobilephone within a
radiusof 1.5 meters.
CONTENTS
Abstract
Contents
1. Introduction 6
Objective
Problem of Statement
Motivation
2. Hardware Description 7
Circuit diagram
Components description
Resistor
Capacitor
Transistor
LED
Piezo buzzer
IC CA 3130
IC NE 555 TIMER
3. Hardware Implementation 28
Basic concept and working of cell phone detector
Application
4 Results,Conclusion and Future scope 33
References
List of Acronyms
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INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
The most common electronic equipmentused is cell
phones. With advancementin communication technology,the
requirement of cell phones has increased manifold. A cell
phone typicallytransmits and receives signalsin the frequency
range of 0.9 to 3GHz. This article provides a simple circuit to
detect the presence of an activatedcell phone by detecting
these signals.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Previously, there was no technology to detect the cell
phones in the examination hallandin cell phonerestricted
areas. There is manualchecking and there is still a chance of
havingthe cell phone with the person if he is not checked
properly. So to avoidthisproblem, an automaticdetection of
cell phoneis introduced.
MOTIVATION
Cell phones are used in good way and also in a bad way.
When the class is going on, students intendto use their cell
phones and not listening to what is being taught. These days,
students are also carrying their cell phones to the examination
hallsto copy which would help them to get good marks. To
avoidthis problem, the cell phone detector is introduced.
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COMPONENT LIST
ANTENNA 5-INCH LONG
CAPACITORS 22p(2),0.22µ(1),100
µ(1),47p(1),
0.1 µ(2),0.01 µ(1),4.7 µ(1)
RESISTORS 2.2M(2),100K,1K,12K,15K,
IC CA3130,NE555
LED 1
TRANSISTER BC548
PIEZO BUZZER
ON/OFF SWITCH
POWER SUPPLY
BATTERY
12V
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RESISTORS
Electronic Symbol:
(Europe)
(US)
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic componentthat produces
a voltageacross its terminals that is proportionalto the electric
current through it in accordancewith Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitousin most electronic equipment.
Practical resistors can be made of variouscompoundsand films,
as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel/chrome).Theprimary characteristicsof a resistor
are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage
and the power rating. Other characteristicsincludetemperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance.Less well-knownis critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipationlimitsthe
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is
appliedvoltage.Critical resistance depends upon the materials
constitutingthe resistor as well as its physicaldimensions;it's
determined by design. Resistorscan be integratedinto hybrid
and printed circuits, as well as integratedcircuits. Size and
positionof leads(or terminals) are relevant to equipment
designers; resistors must be physicallylarge enough not to
overheat when dissipatingtheir power.
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CAPACITORS
A capacitoror condenser is a passive electronic
component consisting of a pairof conductorsseparated
by a dielectric. When a voltagepotentialdifference
exists between the conductors, an electric field is present in the
dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide,
flat, parallel,narrowlyseparatedconductors.
An idealcapacitoris characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance,which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductorto the potentialdifference
between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductorsand
leadsintroduce an equivalentseries resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a
breakdown voltage.
Capacitorsare widely used in electronic circuits to block
the flow of direct current while allowing alternatingcurrent to
pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power
supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in
resonant circuits in radio frequency equipmentto select
particularfrequencies from a signal with many frequencies.
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(1)Ceramic Capacitor
In electronics ceramic capacitoris a capacitor
constructed of alternatinglayersof metal and
ceramic, with the ceramic materialacting as the
dielectric. The temperature coefficient dependson whether
the dielectric is Class 1 or Class 2. A ceramic capacitor
(especially the class 2) often has high dissipationfactor, high
frequency coefficientof dissipation.
Figure 2.2.2 Ceramic capacitors
A ceramic capacitoris a two-terminal, non-polardevice. The
classical ceramic capacitoris the "disc capacitor".This device
pre-datesthe transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-
tube equipment(e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through
the 1950s, and in discrete transistorequipment from the 1950s
through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc capacitorsare in
widespread use in electronic equipment,providinghigh
capacity & small size at low price compared to other low value
capacitortypes.
Ceramic capacitorscome in variousshapes and styles, including:
=>disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads
=> multilayerrectangularblock, surface mount
=>bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is
soldered in place, used for UHF applications
=>tube shape, not popularnow
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2
(2)Electrolytic capacitor
Axial lead (top) and radial lead (bottom) electrolytic capacitors
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses
an ionic conducting liquid as one of its plates with a larger
capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are
valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical
circuits. This is especiallythe case in power-supply filters, where
they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and
current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely
used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be
conducted but DC should not.
Electrolytic capacitors can have a very high capacitance,
allowing filters made with them to have very low corner
frequencies.
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TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductordevice commonly used to
amplify or switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a
solid piece of a semiconductormaterial,with at least three
terminals for connectionto an external circuit. A voltageor
current appliedto one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled(output) power can be much more than
the controlling(input) power, the transistorprovides
amplification ofa signal. Some transistorsare packaged
individuallybut most are found in integratedcircuits.
The transistoris the fundamentalbuildingblock of modern
electronic devices, and its presence is ubiquitousin modern
electronic systems.
Usage
The bipolarjunction transistor, or BJT, was the most
commonly used transistorin the 1960s and 70s. Even after
MOSFETs became widely available,the BJT remainedthe
transistorof choice for many analogcircuits such as simple
amplifiersbecause of their greater linearityand ease of
manufacture. Desirableproperties of MOSFETs, such as their
utility in low-power devices, usually in the CMOS configuration,
allowedthem to capture nearly all market share for digital
circuits; more recently MOSFETs have capturedmost analogand
power applicationsas well, includingmodern clocked analog
circuits, voltageregulators, amplifiers, power transmitters,
motor drivers, etc
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Advantages
=>The key advantages that have allowed transistors to
replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications
are
Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of
miniaturized electronic devices.
=>Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low
per-unit cost.
=>Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors
suitable for small, battery-powered applications.
=>No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power
application.
=>Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy
efficiency.
=>Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
=>Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have
been in service for more than 30 years.
=>Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of
complementary-symmetry circuits, something not possible with
vacuum tubes.
=>Insensitivity to mechanicalshock and vibration,thus avoiding
the problem of micro phonics in audio applications
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Limitations
=>Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher
than about 1,000 volts (SiC devices can be operated as high as
3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have been developed
that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.
=>High power, high frequency operation, such as used in
over-the-air television broadcasting, is better achieved in
electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in a vacuum.
=>On average, a higher degree of amplification linearity
can be achieved in electron tubes as compared to equivalent
solid state devices, a characteristic that may be important in
high fidelity audio reproduction.
=>Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than
electron tubes to an electromagnetic pulse, such as generated
by an atmospheric nuclear explosion
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Bipolar junction transistor
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of
transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named
because they conduct by using both majority and minority
carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base,
and collector. The BJT consists of two p-n junctions: the base–
emitter junction and the base–collector junction, separated by a
thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two
junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening
semiconducting region will not make a transistor). "The [BJT] is
useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and
collector are controllable by the relatively small base current. In
an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base
junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the
junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse
into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and
move away from the junction) base-collector junction and be
swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons
will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in
the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can
leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can
be controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-
emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater
than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in
transistors designed for high-power applications.
Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low–input-impedance device.
Also, as the base–emitter voltage (Vbe) is increased the base–
emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (Ice)
increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model
and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential
relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the
FET.
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LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source.
LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many kinds of electronics
and increasingly for lighting. LEDs work by the effect of
electroluminescence, discovered by accident in 1907. The LED
was introducedas a practical electronic component in 1962. All
early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs
are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red
wavelengths, with very high brightness.
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the
diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of
light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of
the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.
The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm
2
) with
integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern
and assist in reflection.
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LEDs present many advantages over traditional light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching.
However, they are relativelyexpensive and require more precise
current and heat management than traditional light sources.
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy
indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources
in general lighting, automotive lighting and traffic signals. The
compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates
are useful in communications technology.
Various types of LEDs
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PIEZO BUZZER
Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably
crystals and certain ceramics, including bone) to generate an
electric field or electric potential in response to applied
mechanical stress. The effect is closely related to a change of
polarization density within the material's volume. If the
material is not short-circuited, the applied stress induces a
voltage across the material. The word is derived from the Greek
piezo or piezein, which means to squeeze or press.
A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic,
typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as
microwave ovens, or game shows.
It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors
connected to a controlunit that determines if and which button
was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates
a light on the appropriatebuttonor control panel, and sounds a
warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or
beeping sound.
Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system
which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong
(which makes the ringing noise). Often these units were
anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a
sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-
connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC
current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and
hook this circuit up to an 8-ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more
popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder which
makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to
"driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed
the sound on and off.
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BUZZER
In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system"
because when one person signals ("buzzes in"), all others are
locked out from signaling. Several game shows have large
buzzer buttons which are identified as "plungers". The buzzer is
also used to signal wrong answers and when time expires on
many game shows, such as Wheel of Fortune, Family Feud and
The Price is Right.
The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
buzzers made when they were electromechanical devices,
operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles.
Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has
been pressed are a ring or a beep.
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IC CA 3130
This IC is a 15 MHz BiMOS Operational amplifier with
MOSFET inputs and Bipolar output. The inputs contain MOSFET
transistors to provide very high input impedance and very low
input current as low as 10pA. It has high speed of performance
and suitable for low input current applications.
CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the
advantage of both CMOS and bipolar transistors. Gate-
protected P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in
the input circuit to provide very-high-input impedance, very-
low-input current and exceptional speed performance. The use
of PMOS transistors in the input stage results in common-
mode input-voltage capability down to 0.5V below the
negative-supply terminal, an important attribute in single-
supply applications.
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A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output
voltage to within 10mV of either supply-voltage terminal (at
very high values of load impedance), is employed as the output
circuit.
The CA3130 Series circuits operate at supply voltages
ranging from 5V to 16V, (2.5V to 8V). They can be phase
compensated with a single external capacitor, and have
terminals for adjustment of offset voltage for applications
requiring offset-null capability.
Terminal provisions are also made to permit strobing of
the output stage. The CA3130A offers superior input
characteristics over those of the CA3130.
Features
• MOSFET Input Stage Provides:
- Very High ZI = 1.5 T
- Very Low current = 5pA at 15V Operation
• Ideal for Single-Supply Applications
• Common-Mode Input-Voltage Range Includes Negative
Supply Rail; Input Terminals can be Swung 0.5VBelow Negative
Supply Rail
• CMOS Output Stage Permits Signal Swing to Either (or both)
Supply Rails
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Applications
• Ground-Referenced Single Supply Amplifiers
• Fast Sample-Hold Amplifiers
• Long-Duration Timers/ Mono stables
• High-Input-Impedance Comparators (Ideal Interface with
Digital CMOS)
• High-Input-Impedance Wideband Amplifiers
• Voltage Followers (e.g. Follower for Single-Supply D/A
Converter)
• Voltage Regulators (Permits Control of Output Voltage Down
to 0V)
• Peak Detectors
• Single-Supply Full-Wave Precision Rectifiers
• Photo-Diode Sensor Amplifiers
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IC NE555 TIMER
The NE555 IC is a highly stable controller capable of
producing accurate timing pulses. With a monostable
operation, the time delay is controlled by one external resistor
and one capacitor. With an astable operation, the frequency
and duty cycle are accurately controlled by two external
resistors and one capacitor.
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DETAILS OF PIN
1.Ground, is the input pin of the source of the negative DC voltage
2.Trigger, negative input from the lower comparators (comparator
B) that maintain oscillation capacitor voltage in the lowest 1 / 3
Vcc and set RS flip-flop
3.Output, the output pin of the IC 555.
4.Reset, the pin that serves to reset the latch inside the IC to be
influential to reset the IC work. This pin is connected to a PNP-type
transistor gate, so the transistor will be active if given a logic low.
Normally this pin is connected directly to Vcc to prevent reset
5.Control voltage, this pin serves to regulate the stability of the
reference voltage negative input (comparator A). This pin can be
left hanging, but to ensure the stability of the reference
comparator A, usually associated with a capacitor of about 10nF to
pin ground
6.Threshold, this pin is connected to the positive input (comparator
A) which will reset the RS flip-flop when the voltage on the
capacitor from exceeding 2 / 3 Vcc
7.Discharge,this pin is connected to an open collector transistor Q1
is connected to ground emitter. Switching transistor serves to
clamp the corresponding node to ground on the timing of certain
8.Vcc, pin it to receive a DC voltage supply. Usually will work
optimally if given a 5-15V. The current supply can be seen in the
datasheet, which is about 10-15mA.
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Features
• High Current Drive Capability (200mA)
• Adjustable Duty Cycle
• Temperature Stability of 0.005% /C
• Timing from Sec to Hours
• Turn off time less than 2mSec
Applications
• Precision Timing
• Pulse Generation
• Time Delay Generation
• Sequential Timing
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HARDWARE
IMPLEMENTATION
BASIC CONCEPT AND WORKING OF CELLPHONE DETECTOR
Purpose of the circuit
This circuit is intended to detect unauthorized use of
mobile phones in examination halls, confidential rooms etc. It
also helps to detect unauthorizedvideo and audio recordings. It
detects the signal from mobile phones even if it is kept in the
silent mode. It also detects SMS.
Concept
Mobile phone uses RF with a wavelength of 30cm at 872
to 2170 MHz. That is the signal is high frequency with huge
energy. When the mobilephone is active, it transmits the signal
in the form of sine wave which passes through the space. The
encoded audio/video signal contains electromagnetic radiation
which is picked up by the receiver in the base station. Mobile
phone system is referred to as “Cellular Telephone system”
because the coverage area is divided into “cells” each of which
has a base station. The transmitter power of the modern 2G
antenna in the base station is 20-100 watts.
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When a GSM (Global System of Mobile communication)
digital phone is transmitting, the signal is time shared with 7
other users. That is at any one second, each of the 8 users on
the same frequency is allotted 1/8 of the time and the signal is
reconstituted by the receiver to form the speech. Peak power
output of a mobile phone corresponds to 2 watts with an
average of 250 milli watts of continuous power. Each handset
with in a ‘cell’ is allotted a particular frequency for its use. The
mobile phone transmits short signals at regular intervals to
register its availability to the nearest base station. The network
data base stores the information transmitted by the mobile
phone. If the mobile phone moves from one cell to another, it
will keep the connection with the base station having strongest
transmission. Mobile phone always tries to make connection
with the available base station. That is why, the back light of
the phone turns on intermittently while traveling. This will
cause severe battery drain. So in long journeys, battery will flat
within a few hours.
AM Radio uses frequencies between 180 kHz and 1.6 MHz,
FM radio uses 88 to 180 MHz, TV uses 470 to 854 MHz. Waves
at higher frequencies but within the RF region is called Micro
waves. Mobile phone uses high frequency RF wave in the micro
wave region carrying huge amount of electromagnetic energy.
That is why burning sensation develops in the ear if the mobile
is used for a long period. Just like a micro wave oven, mobile
phone is ‘cooking’ the tissues in the ear. RF radiation from the
phone causes oscillation of polar molecules like water in the
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tissues. This generates heat through friction just like the
principle of microwave oven. The strongest radiation from the
mobile phone is about 2 watts which can make connection with
a base station located 2 to 3 km away.
How the circuit works?
The circuit can detect both the incoming and outgoing calls,
SMS and video transmission even if the mobile phone is kept in
the silent mode. The moment the bug detects RF transmission
signal from an activatedmobile phone, it starts sounding a
beep alarm and the LED blinks. The alarm continuesuntil the
signal transmission ceases.
An ordinary RF detector using tuned LC circuits is not suitable
for detecting signals in the GHz frequency bandused in mobile
phones. The transmission frequency of mobile phones ranges
from 0.9 to 3 GHz with a wavelength of 3.3 to 10 cm. So a
circuit detecting gigahertz signals is required for a mobile bug.
Here the circuit uses a 0.22μF disk capacitor(C3) to capture the
RF signals from the mobile phone. The lead length of the
capacitoris fixed as 18 mm with a spacing of 8 mm between
the leadsto get the desired frequency. The disk capacitoralong
with the leadsacts as a small gigahertz loop antennato collect
the RF signalsfrom the mobile phone.
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Op-amp IC CA3130 (IC1) is used in the circuit as a current-to-
voltage converter with capacitorC3 connected between its
inverting and non-inverting inputs. It is a CMOS version using
gate-protected p-channelMOSFET transistors in the input to
provide very high input impedance,very low input current and
very high speed of performance. The output CMOS transistor is
capableof swinging the output voltage to within 10 mV of
either supply voltage terminal.
CapacitorC3 in conjunctionwith the lead inductanceacts as a
transmission line that intercepts the signals from the mobile
phone. This capacitorcreates a field, stores energy and
transfers the stored energy in the form of minute current to the
inputsof IC1. This will upset the balancedinput of IC1 and
convert the current into the corresponding output voltage.
CapacitorC4 along with high-valueresistor R1 keeps the non-
inverting input stable for easy swing of the output to high state.
Resistor R2 provides the discharge path for capacitorC4.
Feedback resistor R3 makes the inverting input high when the
output becomes high. CapacitorC5 (47pF) is connected across
‘strobe’ (pin 8) and ‘null’ inputs(pin 1) of IC1 for phase
compensationand gain control to optimise the frequency
response.
When the mobile phone signal is detected by C3, the output of
IC1 becomes high and low alternatelyaccording to the
frequency of the signal as indicatedby LED1. This triggers
monostable timer IC2 through capacitorC7. CapacitorC6
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maintainsthe base bias of transistor T1 for fast switching
action. The low-valuetiming componentsR6 and C9 produce
very short time delay to avoid audionuisance.
Assemble the circuit on a general purpose PCB as compact as
possible and enclose in a small box like junk mobilecase. As
mentioned earlier, capacitorC3 should have a lead length of 18
mm with lead spacing of 8 mm. Carefully solder the capacitorin
standing positionwith equal spacing of the leads. The response
can be optimised by trimming the lead length of C3 for the
desired frequency. You may use a short telescopic type
antenna.
Use the miniature 12V battery of a remote control and a small
buzzer to make the gadget pocket-size. The unit will give the
warning indication ifsomeone uses mobilephone within a
radiusof 1.5 metres.
APPLICATION
=>It can be used to prevent use of mobile phones in
examination halls, confidential rooms, etc.
=>It is also useful for detecting the use of mobile phone
for spying and unauthorized video transmission.
=>It is useful where the use of mobile phone is prohibited
like petrol pumps and gas stations, historical places, religious
places and court of laws.
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RESULTS,CONCLUSION &
FUTURE SCOPE
RESULTS
The moment the Bug detects RF transmission signal from an
activated mobilephone, it starts sounding a beep alarm and the
LED blinks. The alarm continues until the signal transmission
ceases
CONCLUSION
This pocket-size mobile transmission detector or sniffer can
sense the presence of an activated mobile cell phone from a
distance of one and-a-half meters. So it can be used to prevent
use of mobile phones in examination halls, confidential rooms,
etc. It is also useful for detecting the use of mobile phone for
spying and unauthorized video transmission.
FUTURE SCOPE
Trying to increase the detecting range of cell phone detector
to few more meters for observing wide range of area.
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LIST OF
ACRONYMS
GSM……………………………..Global System for Mobile
RF………………………………………….Radio Frequency
AM…………………………………...Amplitude Modulation
FM………………………………….. Frequency Modulation
LED……………………………………Light Emitting Diode
BJT……………………………Bipolar Junction Transistor
UJT………………………….Unipolar Junction Transistor
FET…………………………………..Field Effect Transistor
JFET……………………..Junction Field Effect Transistor
MOSFET…..................Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor
CMOS……………………….Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor
TTL……………………………Transistor-Transistor Logic
OP-AMP……………………………...Operational Amplifier
UHF…………………………………..Ultra High Frequency