This document summarizes various types of biotoxins, including plant toxins, animal toxins, and seafood toxins. It discusses plants containing atropine like deadly nightshade, thorn apple, and henbane, which can cause symptoms like dry mouth, blurred vision, and hallucinations if ingested. Animal toxins from spiders, snakes, and fish are also examined, explaining how their neurotoxic or necrotic venoms work and the pathology of envenomations. Finally, toxins from consuming seafood like ciguatoxin and tetrodotoxin are outlined, noting they can paralyze breathing muscles and cause symptoms like nausea and numbness.

1. BIOTOXINS
Miscellaneous poisons

2. Zootoxins
 A poisonous substance produced by specific
types of animals that can induced harmful
effects when exposed to tissues.
 Poisonous animals are widely distributed
throughout the animal kingdom; the only major
group that seems to be exempt is the birds.

3. Types of Poisons
 Ingested Poison
Ingested Poisons are poisons that are
dangerous if consumed. The most common
ingested poisons are crafted from plants or
from common chemicals. Frequently,
poisoning occurs accidentally when a creature
unknowingly consumes a poisonous plant, or a
food that has been unintentionally
contaminated.

4.  Parenteral poisons, or venoms
-Those that are produced by a
specialized poison gland and administered by
means of a venom apparatus.

5.  Crinotoxins
Those that are produced by a specialized
poison gland but are merely released into the
environment, usually by means of a pore.

6. ARACHNID POISONING
Miscellaneous poisons

7. Arachnids
 Class: Arachnida
 Any arthropods comprising chiefly terrestrial
invertebrates having a segmented body
divided into two regions of which the anterior
bears four pairs of legs but no antennae.
 E.g. Spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks

8. Spiders
 All spiders are capable of producing venom.
 Spider venoms work on one of two
fundamental principles; they are either
neurotoxic or necrotic.
 Neurotoxic effect
-Attacks the nervous system
 Necrotic effect
-attacking tissues surrounding the bite and
vital organs and systems.

9. Neutrotoxic venoms
 Widow spider venom contains
components known as latrotoxins, which
cause the release of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
 This can affect the body in several ways,
including causing painful abdominal
cramps, as well as interfering
with respiration, and causing other
systemic effects.

10.  The venom of Australian funnel-web
spiders and mouse spiders works by
opening sodium channels, causing excessive
neural activity which interferes with normal
bodily function.
 The venom of Brazilian wandering
spiders is also a potent neurotoxin, which
attacks multiple types of ion channels. In
addition, the venom contains high levels
of serotonin, making an envenomation by
this species particularly painful.

11. Necrotic Venom
 Spiders known to have necrotic venom are
found in the family Sicariidae, a family which
includes both the recluse spiders and the six-
eyed sand spiders.
 Spiders in this family possess a known
dermonecrotic agent sphingomyelinase D.

12. Pathophysiology
 Initial reaction: No pain from the bite
 Bites usually become painful and itchy within two to
eight hours.
 pain and other local effects worsen 12 to 36 hours
after the bite, and then necrosis will develop over
the next few days.
 Mild symptoms include nausea, vomiting,
fever, rashes, muscle and joint pain.
 Severe symptoms occur including hemolysis,
thrombocytopenia, and disseminated intravascular
coagulation.

13. Venom assessment
 LD-50
Give a rough approximation of
the medical consequences of
various spider bites to humans.
Based on experiments with
laboratory mice

14. REPTILE POISONING
Miscellaneous poisons

15. Reptiles
 Class: reptilia
 Air breathing vertebrates
 Characterized by completely ossified skeleton
with single occipital condyle
 Body is usually covered with scales or bony
plates
 E.g. alligators, crocodiles, lizards, snakes and
turtles.

16. Snake bite
 The most fatal form of zoonotic
poisoning
 Proteins constitute 90-95% of
venom's dry weight and they are
responsible for almost all of its
biological effects. Among hundreds,
even thousands of proteins found in
venom, there are toxins.

17. Protein and Enzymes in Snake
Venoms
 digestive hydrolases,
 L-amino acid oxidase,
Damage
 phospholipases, vascular
 thrombin-like pro-coagulant endothelium
 kallikrein-like serine proteases
 metalloproteinases (hemorrhagins)

18.  Polypeptide toxins
include cytotoxins, cardio toxins, and
postsynaptic neurotoxins (such as α-
bungarotoxin and α-Cobratoxin), which
bind to acetylcholine receptors at
neuromuscular junctions.
 Inhibits angiotensin converting enzymes
and potentiate bradykinin.
 Phosphodiesterases

19.  Neurotoxin
These toxins attack cholinergic neurons by
destroying acetylcholinesterase (AChE). ACh
therefore cannot be broken down and stays in
the receptor which causes tetany, that can
lead to death.
 Hemotoxins
The toxin causes hemolysis, or destruction of
red blood cells (erythrocytes)

20.  Dendrotoxins inhibit neurotransmissions by
blocking the exchange of + and – ions across
the neuronal membrane lead to no nerve
impulse. So they paralyse the nerves
 Cardiotoxins are components that are
specifically toxic to the heart. They bind to
particular sites on the surface of muscle cells
and cause depolarisation. These toxins may
cause the heart to beat irregularly or stop
beating, causing death.

21.  Venomous Snakes:
 Mambas
 Vipers
 Rattlesnakes
 King
cobra
 Members of Naja genus

22. Prophylaxis
 Antivenoms
 Usually came from animals such as sheep, goat,
horse and rabbits.
 The immune system of the subject animal
responds to the dose, producing antibodies to the
venom's active molecules.
 the antibodies can then be harvested from the
animal's blood and injected into bite victims to
treat envenomation.

23. Venomous Fish
with spines
live in the Indo-Pacific seas
tropical areas
others live in temperate waters

24. VENOMOUS FISH
 Rajiformes (stingrays and mantas)
 Scorpaenidae (scorpionfish, stonefish and
lionfish)
 Siluroidei (catfish)
 Squaliformes (sharks and dogfish)
 Trachinidae (weevers).
 They live in shallow water near the shore or
near reefs and lie in sand or among rocks

25. MOA
• inject venom through their spines
• it causes intense pain near the bite
and affects the muscles.
Venom from dead fish is still poisonous
for up to 24 hours after the fish has
died.

26. Poisoning from eating
SEAFOOD
 Ciguatoxin poisoning
 Poisoning from shellfish
 Tetrodotoxin poisoning
 Scombrotoxin poisoning

27. Ciguatoxin poisoning
• tropical reef fish
barracuda
grouper
red snapper
amber jack

29. Poisoning from shellfish
 Mussels
 Clams
 Oysters
 Cockles
 Scallops

31. Tetrodotoxin poisoning
• porcupine fish
• puffer fish
• sun fish

33. Scombrotoxin poisoning
• fresh or canned scromboid fish:
tuna
bonito
skipjack
mackerel
-sardines
-pilchards

35. • Cigautoxin, tetrodotoxin and poisons from shellfish
affect the gut and the nervous system.
• Tetrodotoxin and the poison from the shellfish
paralyse muscles, including the muscles that are
used in breathing.
• Scombrotoxin causes an allergic type of reaction.
• Shellfish are most poisonous at times of the year
when the dinoflagellates on which they feed
multiply and form “red tides”.

36. Signs and Symptoms
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Headache
• Numbness
• Shallow breathing
• Itching
• Aching muscles
• Fits
Rare : DEATH

37. What to do
 If the patient is stung rescue him or her
immediately from the water
 Soak the wounded part of the body at once in
the bowl or bath of water as hot as the patient
can safely bare (about 50 C ) for not more than
30 minutes.
 Clean the wound and remove any broken spines

38. PLANT TOXINS
BY Miyoba Mulambo
Bsmls 1V-C

39. Plant toxins include:
 Plants that contain atropine
 Cannabis
 Irritant plants
 Oleanders
 Ornamental beans
 mushrooms

40. Plants that contain Atropine
1.Atropa belladonna
-a.k.a deadly night shade or enchanter’s shade
-Most common
-Shrub with Bell shaped purple or red flower
-Found in Europe, north africa and west Asia
Uses
-prevent or treat asthma in folk medicine

41. Datura stramonium
 A.k.a thorn apple, jimson weed or
angel’strumpet
 Funnel shaped white or mauve herb flowers
 Fruits are prickly or spiny capsules and black
in colour
 Unpleasant smell
 Worldwide
Uses

42. Uses
 Leaves are infused in water to make a drink
 Made into cigarettes and smoked
 Used to cause abortion.
3.Hyoscyamus niger
-A.k.a henbane
-herb with yellow flowers and purple markings
-unpleasant smell
-found in north& south America, Europe,India
and western Asia

43. How they cause harm
 Excite brain and affect nerves that control
heart, eyes, gut and bladder
 Make skin and mouth dry
 Cause fever
 Wide pupils
 Fast breathing and heartbeat

44. How poisonous they are
 Poisonous if eaten, even when cooked or
boiled because poison is not destroyed by
heat
 Atropa and hyoscyamus both contain sap
irritant to skin and eyes
 Atropa may cause poisoning to the eye
 Poison may be severe in old and young
children

45. Special danger
 Mistaken for spinach and the berries of Atropa
for edible fruits
 Are abused for their hallucinogenic effects
 Signs and symptoms
If swallowed
 Red, dry skin, wide pupils, blurred vision
 Dry mouth and thirst
 Confusion and hallucination excitement and
aggression

46. Signs and symptoms continued
 Fast pulse, can’t pass urine, unconsciousness
 Fever and rarely fits
on skin
 Redness and irritation
 Blistering
In the eyes
 Same effects as when swallowed

47. What to do
 Give first aid
 If breathing stops, give mouth –mouth
respiration, heart massage
 It fever is present, sponge body with cool
water
 Give activated charcoal, make him/her vomit
 Wash eye for 15-20minswith running water
 Take the patient to the hospital

48. Cannabis
 A.k.a marijuana, indian hemp, hashish, ganja,
pot, dope and grass
 Made from the indian hemp plant cannabis
saliva
Uses and abuses
 Often abused
 Makes people relax
 Makes colours and sounds seem brighter and
louder

49. Uses and abuses continued
 Taken as food or injected
 Pipe and smoked
How it causes harm
 Affects brain
How poisonous is it ?
 Children get signs of poisoning but recover
 Less harm to adults unless when injected

50. Signs and symptoms
 Effects start within 10mins of smoking the drug
and last for 2-3hrs
 When eaten, effects start within 30-60mins
and last 2-5mins
Effects are:
 Feeling of well-being, happiness and
sleepness but high doses may cause fear,
panic and confusion

51. Effects continued
 Fast pulse, hallucinations, drowsiness, slurred
speech and coughing if the drug is breathed
If injected may cause:
Dizziness, fever,low blood pressure
Severe headace,fever and unconsciousness
What to do
Same as atropines

52. Irritant plants
 Cause skin reactions
Include:
1. Cashew nut tree (anacardium
occidentale)
- tropical countries
-Nut shell contains irritant brown
oily juice
-Roasting shell destroys chemicals
2 . Dumb-cane(dieffenbachia species
-lance shaped leaves with yellow or white
markings
-Common household plant

53. Irritants continued
 Large group of plants
4. poison ivy
-climbing plant, may be found clinging to trees or
houses
5.Rhus radicans (toxicodendron radicans)
-shrub like tree with green leaves that turn
yellow, red violet in autumn
6.African poison

54. Irritants continued
7. Mango (mangifera indica)
8.Urtica dioica
-common stinging nettle
How they cause harm
-irritates skin and brain if swallowed
-dumb-cane causes sever irritations of lips,
mouth and throat and can affect heart and
muscles if swallowed.

55. How they cause harm
 Intense allergic skin reactions depends on
sensitivity of the individual
 Watering, blurred vision, burning pain,
 Swelling of face and eye lids
 Fever, blisters and pain that's worse in bright
light
What to do:
-wash skin with soapy water
-Apply hydrocortisone cream

56. oleanders
 Nerium oleander
- Evergren shrub. White pink flowers with a
sweet smell
- China,india, mediterranean
- Garden plant
- All parts poisonous, crushed leaves and stems
are irritants to skin

57.  Thevetia peruviana
-Small ornamental tree, bright yellow flowers
-Round fruits, green when unripe and black
when ripe
-Milky sap.
-Central and south America, gardens in tropics
and subtropical regions

58. How it causes harm
 Poison affect heart in similar way to digitalis
 Serious poisoning has been reported in
children and adults from eating fruit..very
poisonous
Special danger:
-bright flowers are attractive to children
-Eaten by people who want to kill themselves

59. Signs and symptoms
 Numbness or burning pain in mouth,
 Nausea and vomiting which maybe severe
 Diarrhea, belly pain, drowsiness,possible fits
 Unconsciousness, pulse maybe slow or fast
 Effect of heart may result to death
 What to do
-give magnesium sulphate with charcoal
-Activated charcoal, first aid

60. Ornamental beans
 Abrus precatoris
-climbing tree, clusters of small white pink
flowers
-flat pod fruit with 2-5 shiny red with black patch
seeds
Subtropics, tropics
 Ricinus communis
-large non woody, 3m high large palm like leaves

61. continued
 Round pricky fruits. Bean shaped seed
 Mottled pink and grey
 Grown as crop and also scattered in farmlands
 Tropics
Uses
-necklace and rosaries
-castor oil beans used to make castor oil

62. uses
 Castor oil used as laxative
 Seeds are given to children to use in
handicraft and counting and is not
recommended
How they cause harm
-damage blood cells, gut and kidneys
How poisonous are they?
-death, blindness, irritation and rash

63. Signs and symptoms
 If swallowed:
 effects are delayed for 2hrs to 2 days
-burning sensation, sever vomiting, belly pain
-Diarrhea with blood, dehydration. Drowsiness
-fits ,may pass blood stained urine in small
volumes
 In the eye
-reddening and swelling
-sometimes blindness

64. continued
 On skin
-Redness and rash
What to give:
Magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate or activated
charcoal
-Wash skin with soap and water
-Wash eyes for 15-20mins in running water
-Take the seeds out of the mouth

65. Mushrooms
 Covers Amanita species
1. A. mascaria and A.pantheria cause
hallucinations , sleep or unconsciousness
2. A. Phalloides, A. Virosa, A. Verna, cortinarius
speciosissimus and lepiota species contain
poisons that damage cells
3. Clitocybe and Inocybe species contain a
poison that causes sweating and affects gut

66. mushrooms
4. Coprinus atramentarius only causes poisoning
when alcohol is taken as well
5. Psilocybe semilanceata and P. Cubensis
cause hallucination without sleep
How poisonous they are:
-most cause mild to moderate poisoning but
some cause severe poisoning and death
Many people have died after eating A.phalloides

67. Special danger
 Identification of poisonous to non-poisonous is
very difficult
 Cooking may destroy the poison but many
kinds like Amanita species are poisonous even
after cooking
 Sever effects in small children producing fits
and unconsciousness

68. Signs and symptoms
 dizziness, incordination, stagering
hallucinations, deep sleep, muscle jerking
 belly pain , nausea, sever vomiting,intense
thirst, diarrhea lasting 2-3 days
 jaundice, signs of kidney failure,laughing
 Palpitaions and chest pains,blurred vision
 Drowsiness,anxiety, red face and neck
 Metallic taste in the mouth,chills and headace

69. AFTER 3 SEMESTERS …

70. WE
SURVIVED…

71. CLINICAL
CHEMIST
RY
GODBLESS US ALL …………. AMEN! 