The document discusses different types of foundations and roof systems used in construction. It describes shallow foundations, including spread footings, strip footings, and mat foundations. It also covers deep foundations like pile foundations and caissons. For roof systems, it outlines flat roofs, sloping roofs, reinforced concrete roof slabs, and precast concrete roof slabs. It provides details on the characteristics and uses of each type.

1. METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
- LIPIKA PANDEY

2. “
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FOUNDATION TYPES

3. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• Shallow or spread foundations are employed when stable soil of adequate
bearing capacity occurs relatively near to the ground surface. They are placed
directly below the lowest part of a substructure and transfer building loads
directly to the supporting soil by vertical pressure.

4. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• The lowest part of a shallow foundation are spread footings. They are
extended laterally to distribute their load over an area of soil wide enough
that the allow able bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded. The contact
area required is equal to the quotient of the magnitude of forces transmitted
and the allowable bearing capacity of the supporting soil mass.

5. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• The most common forms of spread footings are strip footings and isolated footings.
• Strip footings are the continuous spread footings of foundation walls.
• Other types of spread footings include the following:
• Stepped footings are strip footings that change levels in stages to accommodate a sloping
grade and maintain the required depth at all points around a building.
• A cantilever or strap footing consists of a column footing connected by a tie beam to
another footing in order to balance an asymmetrically imposed load.
• A combined footing is are in forced concrete footing for a perimeter foundation wall or
column extended to support an interior column load.

6. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• Cantilever and combined footings are often used when a foundation abuts a property line
and it is not possible to construct a symmetrically loaded footing. To prevent the rotation or
differential settlement that an asymmetrical loading condition can produce, continuous and
cantilever footings are proportioned to generate uniform soil pressure.
• A mat or raft foundation is a thick, heavily reinforced concrete slab that serves as a single
monolithic footing for a number of columns or an entire building. Mat foundations are used
when the allowable bearing capacity of a foundation soil is low relative to building loads and
interior column footings become so large that it becomes more economical to merge them
into a single slab. Mat foundations may be stiffened by a grid of ribs, beams, or walls.
• A floating foundation, used in yielding soil, has for its footing a mat placed deep enough
that the weight of the excavated soil is equal to or greater than the weight of the
construction being supported.

7. DEEP FOUNDATION
• Deep foundations are employed when the soil underlying a foundation is
unstable or of inadequate bearing capacity. They extend down through
unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a more appropriate bearing
stratum of rock or dense sands and gravels well below the superstructure

8. DEEP FOUNDATION
• Deep foundations extend down through unsuitable or unstable soil to transfer
building loads to a more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense sands and
gravels well below the superstructure. The two principal types of deep foundations
are pile foundations and caisson foundations.
• A pile foundation is a system of end-bearing or friction piles, pile caps, and tie
beams for transferring building loads down to a suitable bearing stratum
• Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by boring with
a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum
and filling the shaft with concrete. For this reason, they are also referred to as drilled
piles or piers.

9. “
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STONE MASONRY

10. STONE MASONRY
• Natural stone is a durable, weather-resistant construction material that may be laid
in mortar much like clay and concrete masonry units to make both bearing and non
bearing walls. Some differences result, however, from the irregular shapes and sizes
of rubble, the uneven coursing of ashlar masonry, and the varying physical
properties of the different types of stone that may be used in the wall construction.
• Natural stone may be bonded with mortar and laid up in the traditional manner as a
double-faced loadbearing wall. More often, however, stone is used as a facing veneer
tied to a concrete or masonry backup wall. To prevent discoloration of the stone,
only non staining cement and noncorrosive ties, anchors, and flashing should be
used. Copper, brass, and bronze may stain under certain conditions.

11. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRICK AND
STONE MASONRY
BRICK MASONRY STONE MASONRY
1 Uniform in shape and size. Not of uniform shape and size.
2 Light in weight. Heavy.
3 Does not require any dressing. Requires dressing.
4 Not easily available. Available easily.
5 Laying is easy. Laying is difficult.
6 Mortar joints are thin. Mortar joints are thick.
7 Less watertight. More watertight.
8 Have better fire resistance. Fire resistance is poor.
9 The cost of construction is less. The cost of construction is more.
10 Not much strong. Stronger.

12. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRICK AND
STONE MASONRY
• Generally brick masonry is cheaper than stone masonry and can be easily constructed.
• The minimum, thickness of wall in stone masonry can be 35 cm whereas, in brick masonry, walls of 10 cm
thickness can be constructed.
• The brick masonry construction proceeds very quickly whereas the stone masonry construction proceeds vary
slowly, as the bricks are handy whereas stones are not.
• Skilled masons are required for stone masonry construction, whereas unskilled laymen can do the brick masonry
work.
• Brick masonry requires less mortar whereas stone masonry requires more mortar which cannot be easily estimated.
• Stone masonry is stronger and more durable brick masonry.

13. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRICK AND
STONE MASONRY
• It is not essential to plaster the stone masonry walls whereas brick walls have to be plastered or painted, when exposed to
the open atmosphere.
• Bricks are of an absorbent nature and no absorbing moisture make the buildings damp, but stones are less adsorbent, and
hence stone masonry walls or buildings are more damp proof.
• Brick masonry work cannot be allowed to come in contact with urine, sewage etc., without protecting them, whereas this is
not the case with stone masonry.
• Brick masonry is more fire-resistant than stone masonry.
• Good ornamental work can be cheaply and easily done in plaster in case of brick masonry, but it is not possible in stone
masonry.
• Being uniform and regular in shape, proper bond can be easily obtained in case of bricks as compared with stones.
Similarly, obtuse and acute angle joints can be easily provided with brick in masonry than stone masonry.
• Brick absorbs less quantity of heat than stone, therefore in not climates, during nights, stone walls emit mere quantity of
heat and make sitting in the room uncomfortable

14. “
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ROOF SYSTEM

15. FLAT ROOF
• Flat roofs require a continuous membrane roofing material.
• Minimum recommended slope: 1 / 4" per foot (1:50)
• The roof slope may be achieved by inclining the structural members or roof deck, or by tapering
the layer of thermal insulation.
• The slope usually leads to interior drains. Secondary, emergency overflow roof drains or scuppers
are required in cases where water might be trapped if the primary roof drains are blocked.
• Flat roofs can efficiently cover a building of any horizontal dimension, and may be structured
and designed to serve as an outdoor space.
• The structure of a flat roof may consist of: • Reinforced concrete slabs • Flat timber or steel
trusses • Timber or steel beams and decking • Wood or steel joists and sheathing

16. SLOPING ROOF
• Sloping roofs may be categorized into • Low-slope roofs—upto 3:12 •
Medium-to high-slope roofs—4:12 to 12:12
• The roof slope affects the choice of roofing material, the requirements for
underlayment and eave flashing, and design wind loads.
• Low-slope roofs require roll or continuous membrane roofing; some shingles
and sheet materials may be used on 3:12 pitches.
• Medium-and high-slope roofs may be covered with shingles, tiles, or sheet
materials.

17. SLOPING ROOF
• Sloping roofs shed rainwater easily to eave gutters.
• The height and area of a sloping roof increase with its horizontal
dimensions.
• The space under a sloping roof maybe usable.
• Sloping roof planes may be combined to form a variety of roof forms.
• Sloping roofs may have a structure of: • Wood or steel rafters and sheathing •
Timber or steel beams, purlins, and decking • Timber or steel trusses

18. REINFORCED CONCRETE ROOF SLAB
• Reinforced concrete roof slabs are formed and site cast in the same manner
as the concrete floor systems. Roof slabs are normally covered with a type of
membrane roofing.
• Roof slabs may be supported by reinforced concrete columns, reinforced
concrete frames, or bearing walls of reinforced concrete or masonry.
• Reinforced concrete may be designed and cast into a variety of other roof
forms, such as folded plates, domes, and shell structures

19. PRECAST CONCRETE ROOF SLAB
• Precast concrete roof systems are similar in form and construction to precast floor
systems and use the same types of slab units.
• Site cast concrete topping, reinforced with welded wire fabric or reinforcing bars,
bonds to precast slabs to form a composite structural unit; 2" (51) minimum. The
topping may be omitted if rigid foam insulation is laid over smooth-surfaced precast
units.
• Slope concrete topping or precast units to drain; 1 /4" per foot (1:50) minimum
recommended.
• Underside of precast slabs maybe caulked and painted; a ceiling finish may also be
applied to or be suspended from slab.

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