This lecture covers the basics of genetics including an introduction to Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants, genetic terminology, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using Punnett squares, Mendel's principles of inheritance, and concepts beyond Mendel like incomplete dominance. Key points covered include Mendel discovering the basic principles of heredity through studying traits in pea plants, how dominant and recessive alleles are inherited in monohybrid and dihybrid crosses according to his principles, and the concept of incomplete dominance in traits like flower color.
Incomplete dominance results in a blending of the dominant and recessive alleles such that the phenotype is intermediate between the two pure phenotypes. Codominance results in both alleles being fully expressed together in the heterozygote such that the phenotype shows a combination of both. Examples include snapdragons that are pink when heterozygous for red and white alleles under incomplete dominance, and human blood types that are type AB when heterozygous for the A and B alleles under codominance.
Epistasis refers to the phenomenon where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of other genes. There are different types of epistatic interactions: dominant epistasis occurs when a dominant allele of one gene masks the effect of alleles at another gene locus; recessive epistasis occurs when a recessive allele of one gene hides the effects of alleles at another locus; and duplicate recessive genes, or complementary genes, produce the same phenotype only when both genes have homozygous recessive alleles. Epistasis can modify expected Mendelian ratios from crosses.
7th grade life science genetics and probabilityEllen Finegold
This document discusses Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance and how they can be used to predict offspring through the use of Punnett squares and probability. It defines key genetic terms like alleles, dominant/recessive, genotype and phenotype. It also provides examples of classic Mendelian crosses using pea plants and describes how the crosses would appear in a monohybrid (one trait) Punnett square analysis.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals differing in one character pair, such as tall vs dwarf plants. The F1 generation produced from this cross is then self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. In a monohybrid cross involving a dominant tall trait and recessive dwarf trait, the F1 generation will all be tall, while the F2 generation will exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf plants.
1) This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics.
2) Mendel performed crosses involving one or two traits, such as plant height and seed color, and observed predictable inheritance patterns including dominance and independent assortment of genes.
3) His work demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units of heredity now called genes.
Gregor Mendel performed experiments with pea plants from 1856 to 1863 to study heredity. He found that pea plants have traits such as flower color and seed shape that are inherited. Through controlled breeding experiments involving over 28,000 pea plants, Mendel discovered that traits are passed to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes, and that some traits are dominant over recessive traits. His findings disproved the prevailing theory of blending inheritance and established the basic principles of genetics.
This document discusses three genetic inheritance patterns: dominance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance. Dominance occurs when one allele is expressed over the other. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. Examples include flowers and hair color. Co-dominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote, so the phenotype shows traits of both. Examples given are coat color in horses and cattle, and chestnut and white coat colors producing a palomino horse.
Incomplete dominance results in a blending of the dominant and recessive alleles such that the phenotype is intermediate between the two pure phenotypes. Codominance results in both alleles being fully expressed together in the heterozygote such that the phenotype shows a combination of both. Examples include snapdragons that are pink when heterozygous for red and white alleles under incomplete dominance, and human blood types that are type AB when heterozygous for the A and B alleles under codominance.
Epistasis refers to the phenomenon where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of other genes. There are different types of epistatic interactions: dominant epistasis occurs when a dominant allele of one gene masks the effect of alleles at another gene locus; recessive epistasis occurs when a recessive allele of one gene hides the effects of alleles at another locus; and duplicate recessive genes, or complementary genes, produce the same phenotype only when both genes have homozygous recessive alleles. Epistasis can modify expected Mendelian ratios from crosses.
7th grade life science genetics and probabilityEllen Finegold
This document discusses Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance and how they can be used to predict offspring through the use of Punnett squares and probability. It defines key genetic terms like alleles, dominant/recessive, genotype and phenotype. It also provides examples of classic Mendelian crosses using pea plants and describes how the crosses would appear in a monohybrid (one trait) Punnett square analysis.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals differing in one character pair, such as tall vs dwarf plants. The F1 generation produced from this cross is then self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. In a monohybrid cross involving a dominant tall trait and recessive dwarf trait, the F1 generation will all be tall, while the F2 generation will exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf plants.
1) This document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics.
2) Mendel performed crosses involving one or two traits, such as plant height and seed color, and observed predictable inheritance patterns including dominance and independent assortment of genes.
3) His work demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units of heredity now called genes.
Gregor Mendel performed experiments with pea plants from 1856 to 1863 to study heredity. He found that pea plants have traits such as flower color and seed shape that are inherited. Through controlled breeding experiments involving over 28,000 pea plants, Mendel discovered that traits are passed to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes, and that some traits are dominant over recessive traits. His findings disproved the prevailing theory of blending inheritance and established the basic principles of genetics.
This document discusses three genetic inheritance patterns: dominance, incomplete dominance, and co-dominance. Dominance occurs when one allele is expressed over the other. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. Examples include flowers and hair color. Co-dominance occurs when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote, so the phenotype shows traits of both. Examples given are coat color in horses and cattle, and chestnut and white coat colors producing a palomino horse.
Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two allelic forms of a given gene in a species. Examples include blood groups in humans and coat color in mice. The ABO blood group gene in humans has three alleles - IA, IB, and i - which determine blood types A, B, AB, and O. Coat color in mice is also determined by multiple alleles at a single gene locus, with alleles for black, brown, agouti, gray, and albino hair colors exhibiting a dominance hierarchy. Multiple alleles always influence the same trait and occupy the same locus on chromosomes, with no crossing over between member alleles of a multiple allelic series.
Incomplete dominance refers to a genetic situation where one allele does not completely blend with another allele at a particular gene. Codominance is a pattern of inheritance where both alleles of two traits are equally expressed rather than blending together. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene that arise from mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
This document discusses different types of gene interaction:
1. It defines gene interaction as two or more genes affecting the expression of a single character in an organism.
2. It classifies gene interactions into allelic/non-epistatic interactions which follow classical Mendelian ratios, and non-allelic/epistatic interactions where genes on the same or different chromosomes interact.
3. Epistatic genes suppress or mask the expression of other genes, called hypostatic genes. Epistatic gene interactions are further classified into six types based on how the genes influence each other.
Genetic linkage refers to genes that are located close together on the same chromosome tending to be inherited together. Crossing over can break genetic linkage during meiosis by exchanging DNA between homologous chromosomes, producing recombinant gametes with new combinations of genes. The closer genes are on a chromosome, the less likely they are to be separated by crossing over. Crossing over increases genetic variation and plays an important role in plant and animal breeding.
Cell division through mitosis occurs in three main stages and produces two identical daughter cells. Mitosis includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase where the genetic material is duplicated and separated. Cytokinesis then partitions the cytoplasm between the two daughter cells through cleavage in animal cells and cell plate formation in plant cells. Mitosis results in genetic identicalness and is important for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
The periodic table is divided into blocks based on the orbital being filled with electrons - s-block, p-block, d-block, f-block. The s-block contains groups 1 and 2 whose elements have electrons filling the s orbital. The p-block spans groups 3 through 8 and contains elements with electrons filling p orbitals. The d-block is the largest block and contains the transition metals, whose elements have electrons filling the d orbital. The f-block contains the inner transition metals and its elements have electrons filling the 4f or 5f orbitals.
Chromosomes contain DNA, which determines inherited traits. DNA has a double helix structure, with nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases that pair up. During DNA replication, enzymes unwind and separate the DNA strands. DNA polymerase assembles new strands according to base pairing rules. Mutations can occur by inserting, deleting or substituting nucleotides, changing protein synthesis. Genes determine traits; alleles are gene variants that can be dominant or recessive.
Codominance is the situation when the effect of both genes are observed. This presentation describes how codominant traits work to determine human blood types and flower coloring .
This document discusses multiple alleles and blood types. It defines genes and alleles, noting that most genes have two alleles but some have three or more, called polyallelic genes. The ABO blood type system is controlled by a triallelic gene that generates six possible genotypes based on three alleles that determine the A, B, and O antigens. Blood transfusions require matching blood types to avoid agglutination, as the immune system recognizes foreign blood types.
Incomplete dominance is a type of inheritance where neither allele for a trait is dominant. When hybridizing two purebred parents with different alleles, the offspring express a combined intermediate phenotype rather than one or the other parental phenotype. For example, when crossing a red flower with a white flower, the hybrid offspring are pink instead of red or white. A cross between red and blue flowers produces purple offspring rather than red or blue.
1. Mendel's experiments with pea plants in 1865 established the basic principles of genetics, including that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes).
2. DNA was identified as the genetic material through experiments in the mid-20th century. DNA is made up of nucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases that bond together in base pairs.
3. Genes provide instructions for making proteins through DNA transcription and translation of mRNA into amino acid chains, allowing cells to carry out their functions. The genetic code is universal across all life on Earth.
Biology - Chp 11 - Introduction To Genetics - PowerPointMel Anthony Pepito
Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the mid-1800s laid the groundwork for genetics as a science. Through his work, Mendel discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors that he called genes. He also described the principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. Later, it was discovered that genes are located on chromosomes within cells and are passed from parents to offspring through the cellular process of meiosis. Meiosis results in gametes with half the normal chromosome number, allowing each parent to contribute one set of chromosomes to offspring.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It discusses how Mendel studied seven traits in pea plants through controlled crosses between pure-breeding lines. His results demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes or alleles) and showed dominance relationships. Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment. Later researchers confirmed Mendel's findings through experiments with pea plants.
The document summarizes different types of chemical bonds including ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals interactions. It describes how each type of bond forms and provides examples. Ionic bonds form through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Covalent bonds form when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Metallic bonds result from delocalized electrons within metal structures. Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attractions between hydrogen and electronegative atoms. Van der Waals interactions arise from correlations in polarizations between particles.
Cell division and inheritance allows organisms to grow and pass genetic information between generations. During cell division, DNA is replicated and divided between new cells so they have the same characteristics. There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces identical cells while meiosis produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes. Genes determine traits and alleles are different forms of genes. Dominant alleles show up in offspring while recessive alleles only show if an organism is homozygous recessive. Genetic crosses using Punnett squares can predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes from parent genotypes.
1. A back cross is a cross between an F1 individual and one of its parents. A test cross is specifically a cross between an F1 individual and its homozygous recessive parent.
2. Back crosses and test crosses are important for determining genotypes, obtaining pure lines, and introducing desirable traits through successive crosses.
3. A test cross, unlike a general back cross, will result in a 1:1 ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes in the F2 generation, allowing determination of genetic constitution.
This document discusses the four main types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and metallic bonds. Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between atoms. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attractions between hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to electronegative atoms and another electronegative atom. Metallic bonds are electrostatic attractions between positively charged metal ions and delocalized electrons in metals. Examples of each type of bond are provided.
Examples of Codominance. The best example, in this case, is the codominance blood type. ABO group is considered to be a codominant blood group where both father’s and mother’s blood group is expressed. It means that the properties of the blood groups exist in the ABO type.
Codominance is a relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele usually will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.
This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
This document provides an overview of genetics and key concepts from Gregor Mendel's experiments. It introduces Mendel's work with pea plants, the principles of inheritance he established including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. It explains genetic crosses such as monohybrid and dihybrid through the use of Punnett squares. The document also discusses examples of genetic inheritance patterns in humans including cystic fibrosis and Gaucher disease. It concludes with a brief overview of concepts beyond Mendelian genetics like incomplete dominance.
This document provides an overview of genetics concepts including:
- Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the principles of heredity and inheritance patterns
- Key genetics terms like genotype, phenotype, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous
- How Mendel used monohybrid and dihybrid crosses to study single and double trait inheritance through Punnett squares
- His principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment
- Examples of genetic inheritance patterns in humans like cystic fibrosis and Gaucher disease
- Exceptions to Mendelian genetics through incomplete dominance seen in snapdragon flower color
Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two allelic forms of a given gene in a species. Examples include blood groups in humans and coat color in mice. The ABO blood group gene in humans has three alleles - IA, IB, and i - which determine blood types A, B, AB, and O. Coat color in mice is also determined by multiple alleles at a single gene locus, with alleles for black, brown, agouti, gray, and albino hair colors exhibiting a dominance hierarchy. Multiple alleles always influence the same trait and occupy the same locus on chromosomes, with no crossing over between member alleles of a multiple allelic series.
Incomplete dominance refers to a genetic situation where one allele does not completely blend with another allele at a particular gene. Codominance is a pattern of inheritance where both alleles of two traits are equally expressed rather than blending together. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene that arise from mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
This document discusses different types of gene interaction:
1. It defines gene interaction as two or more genes affecting the expression of a single character in an organism.
2. It classifies gene interactions into allelic/non-epistatic interactions which follow classical Mendelian ratios, and non-allelic/epistatic interactions where genes on the same or different chromosomes interact.
3. Epistatic genes suppress or mask the expression of other genes, called hypostatic genes. Epistatic gene interactions are further classified into six types based on how the genes influence each other.
Genetic linkage refers to genes that are located close together on the same chromosome tending to be inherited together. Crossing over can break genetic linkage during meiosis by exchanging DNA between homologous chromosomes, producing recombinant gametes with new combinations of genes. The closer genes are on a chromosome, the less likely they are to be separated by crossing over. Crossing over increases genetic variation and plays an important role in plant and animal breeding.
Cell division through mitosis occurs in three main stages and produces two identical daughter cells. Mitosis includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase where the genetic material is duplicated and separated. Cytokinesis then partitions the cytoplasm between the two daughter cells through cleavage in animal cells and cell plate formation in plant cells. Mitosis results in genetic identicalness and is important for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
The periodic table is divided into blocks based on the orbital being filled with electrons - s-block, p-block, d-block, f-block. The s-block contains groups 1 and 2 whose elements have electrons filling the s orbital. The p-block spans groups 3 through 8 and contains elements with electrons filling p orbitals. The d-block is the largest block and contains the transition metals, whose elements have electrons filling the d orbital. The f-block contains the inner transition metals and its elements have electrons filling the 4f or 5f orbitals.
Chromosomes contain DNA, which determines inherited traits. DNA has a double helix structure, with nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases that pair up. During DNA replication, enzymes unwind and separate the DNA strands. DNA polymerase assembles new strands according to base pairing rules. Mutations can occur by inserting, deleting or substituting nucleotides, changing protein synthesis. Genes determine traits; alleles are gene variants that can be dominant or recessive.
Codominance is the situation when the effect of both genes are observed. This presentation describes how codominant traits work to determine human blood types and flower coloring .
This document discusses multiple alleles and blood types. It defines genes and alleles, noting that most genes have two alleles but some have three or more, called polyallelic genes. The ABO blood type system is controlled by a triallelic gene that generates six possible genotypes based on three alleles that determine the A, B, and O antigens. Blood transfusions require matching blood types to avoid agglutination, as the immune system recognizes foreign blood types.
Incomplete dominance is a type of inheritance where neither allele for a trait is dominant. When hybridizing two purebred parents with different alleles, the offspring express a combined intermediate phenotype rather than one or the other parental phenotype. For example, when crossing a red flower with a white flower, the hybrid offspring are pink instead of red or white. A cross between red and blue flowers produces purple offspring rather than red or blue.
1. Mendel's experiments with pea plants in 1865 established the basic principles of genetics, including that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes).
2. DNA was identified as the genetic material through experiments in the mid-20th century. DNA is made up of nucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases that bond together in base pairs.
3. Genes provide instructions for making proteins through DNA transcription and translation of mRNA into amino acid chains, allowing cells to carry out their functions. The genetic code is universal across all life on Earth.
Biology - Chp 11 - Introduction To Genetics - PowerPointMel Anthony Pepito
Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants in the mid-1800s laid the groundwork for genetics as a science. Through his work, Mendel discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors that he called genes. He also described the principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. Later, it was discovered that genes are located on chromosomes within cells and are passed from parents to offspring through the cellular process of meiosis. Meiosis results in gametes with half the normal chromosome number, allowing each parent to contribute one set of chromosomes to offspring.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It discusses how Mendel studied seven traits in pea plants through controlled crosses between pure-breeding lines. His results demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes or alleles) and showed dominance relationships. Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment. Later researchers confirmed Mendel's findings through experiments with pea plants.
The document summarizes different types of chemical bonds including ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals interactions. It describes how each type of bond forms and provides examples. Ionic bonds form through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Covalent bonds form when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Metallic bonds result from delocalized electrons within metal structures. Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attractions between hydrogen and electronegative atoms. Van der Waals interactions arise from correlations in polarizations between particles.
Cell division and inheritance allows organisms to grow and pass genetic information between generations. During cell division, DNA is replicated and divided between new cells so they have the same characteristics. There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces identical cells while meiosis produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes. Genes determine traits and alleles are different forms of genes. Dominant alleles show up in offspring while recessive alleles only show if an organism is homozygous recessive. Genetic crosses using Punnett squares can predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes from parent genotypes.
1. A back cross is a cross between an F1 individual and one of its parents. A test cross is specifically a cross between an F1 individual and its homozygous recessive parent.
2. Back crosses and test crosses are important for determining genotypes, obtaining pure lines, and introducing desirable traits through successive crosses.
3. A test cross, unlike a general back cross, will result in a 1:1 ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes in the F2 generation, allowing determination of genetic constitution.
This document discusses the four main types of chemical bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and metallic bonds. Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between atoms. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Hydrogen bonds are electrostatic attractions between hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to electronegative atoms and another electronegative atom. Metallic bonds are electrostatic attractions between positively charged metal ions and delocalized electrons in metals. Examples of each type of bond are provided.
Examples of Codominance. The best example, in this case, is the codominance blood type. ABO group is considered to be a codominant blood group where both father’s and mother’s blood group is expressed. It means that the properties of the blood groups exist in the ABO type.
Codominance is a relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele usually will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.
This PPT consists of 15 slides only explaining Pleiotropy. This is a phenomenon when one gene controls more than one trait , the traits may be related .Generally one gene's product acts for many reactions and so can affect more than one trait. Examples can be seen in pea Coloured flower and pigmentation in leaf axil, frizzle trait in chicken, fur colour and deafness in cats,Human pleiotropic traits are PKU,Sickle cell Anaemia. HOsyndrome , p53 gene etc
This document provides an overview of genetics and key concepts from Gregor Mendel's experiments. It introduces Mendel's work with pea plants, the principles of inheritance he established including dominance, segregation and independent assortment. It explains genetic crosses such as monohybrid and dihybrid through the use of Punnett squares. The document also discusses examples of genetic inheritance patterns in humans including cystic fibrosis and Gaucher disease. It concludes with a brief overview of concepts beyond Mendelian genetics like incomplete dominance.
This document provides an overview of genetics concepts including:
- Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the principles of heredity and inheritance patterns
- Key genetics terms like genotype, phenotype, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous
- How Mendel used monohybrid and dihybrid crosses to study single and double trait inheritance through Punnett squares
- His principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment
- Examples of genetic inheritance patterns in humans like cystic fibrosis and Gaucher disease
- Exceptions to Mendelian genetics through incomplete dominance seen in snapdragon flower color
This document provides an overview of genetics concepts including:
- Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the principles of heredity and inheritance patterns
- Key genetics terms like genotype, phenotype, alleles, homozygous and heterozygous
- Mendel's principles of dominance, segregation and independent assortment observed through monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
- Examples of inheritance patterns for traits like flower color, stem length and human diseases like cystic fibrosis
- Extensions of Mendelian genetics including incomplete dominance observed in snapdragon flower color.
This document provides an overview of genetics and key concepts from Gregor Mendel's experiments. It introduces Mendel's work with pea plants and how he established the principles of heredity through monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. His work demonstrated that traits are inherited through discrete units called genes. The document also defines important genetic terminology and concepts such as dominant/recessive alleles, genotypes, phenotypes and Punnett squares. It discusses how Mendel's principles apply universally, using the example of cystic fibrosis inheritance in humans. The principle of independent assortment and exceptions like incomplete dominance in snapdragons are also summarized.
Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1800s and established the principles of inheritance, including dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. His work showed that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units called genes. Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses examine the inheritance of one or two traits and can be represented using Punnett squares. Mendel's principles form the basis of modern genetics.
This document discusses genetics and inheritance. It defines key genetic terms like heredity, genetics, traits, genes, alleles, dominant/recessive alleles, heterozygous, homozygous, phenotype and genotype. It explains Mendel's principles of heredity through monohybrid crosses using pea plants and Punnett squares. A monohybrid cross of tall and dwarf plants results in all tall offspring in the F1 generation and a 3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation. Pedigrees are used to track inherited human traits through families.
The document summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundation for the modern understanding of genetics and heredity. It discusses Mendel's observations of inherited traits in pea plants and how this led him to discover the three laws of inheritance: 1) the law of dominance, 2) the law of segregation, and 3) the law of independent assortment. It also explains some of Mendel's experimental methods and variables he controlled that contributed to his success, such as choosing simple and contrasting traits to study. Finally, it provides examples of genetic crosses and inheritance patterns including monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using Punnett squares.
This document provides an overview of genetics and Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance. It begins with an introduction to genetics, DNA, chromosomes, and heredity. It then discusses Gregor Mendel's biography and his experiments between 1856-1863, in which he studied seven traits of pea plants and developed the laws of segregation and independent assortment. The document explains Mendelian genetics concepts like genes, alleles, genotypes, phenotypes, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. It provides examples of Mendelian inheritance patterns in human genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis and Gaucher disease. Finally, it discusses exceptions to Mendel
This document provides an overview of basic Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns. It discusses how Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1800s to discover the laws of inheritance. Through his work, he demonstrated that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units called genes. The document also explains how monohybrid and dihybrid crosses can be used to predict inheritance patterns based on Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. It uses the example of cystic fibrosis inheritance in humans to illustrate how recessive traits are expressed.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his discovery of the principles of heredity and genetic inheritance. It defines key genetic terminology and describes Mendel's experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using Punnett squares to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes. It explains how Mendel's work laid the foundation for modern genetics through his demonstration that traits are passed from parents to offspring via discrete units later known as genes.
1) The document discusses Mendelian genetics and provides explanations of key genetics concepts such as genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits, monohybrid crosses, and Punnett squares.
2) It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his discovery of the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
3) Examples of monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares are provided to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes based on parental traits.
This document provides an introduction to genetics, including the basics of DNA structure, genes, chromosomes, heredity, and Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It explains that DNA contains the genetic instructions passed down from parents to offspring, and that genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes that influence traits. It summarizes Mendel's key conclusions from his experiments, including the laws of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
Gregor Mendel conducted the first recorded scientific study of heredity by breeding pea plants. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units (now known as genes). Mendel determined that some traits are dominant and will mask recessive traits, and that traits are inherited independently of each other. His work established the basic principles of genetics and heredity.
genetics introduction - models of inheritancemed zar
1. The document discusses genetics concepts including genes, alleles, genotypes, phenotypes, Mendel's laws of inheritance, and models of inheritance.
2. It provides examples of Mendel's experiments with pea plants and dihybrid crosses, demonstrating dominant and recessive traits.
3. Different inheritance patterns are described such as complete dominance, albinism, PKU, and blood types. Pedigree analysis is also discussed.
Unit v patterns ofinheritance mendelian inheritanceDeepa Lashkari
1. Gregor Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to study inheritance patterns of traits. Through his experiments, he discovered three laws of inheritance: the law of dominance, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment.
2. Mendel's experiments showed that factors (now known as genes) are passed unchanged from parents to offspring, and that inherited traits are determined by alternative versions (alleles) of these factors.
3. Mendel's laws explain inheritance of human traits and diseases such as cystic fibrosis, which follows a recessive pattern of inheritance where both parents must carry the recessive allele for a child to be affected.
1. Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. He found that traits separated and were transmitted independently during the formation of gametes.
2. His experiments showed that some traits are dominant over others and that offspring have predictable ratios of traits depending on the parents' genotypes.
3. Further work established his laws of inheritance including dominance, segregation, and independent assortment which explained patterns of inheritance.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1850s and 1860s to study inheritance of traits. Through his experiments with over 28,000 pea plants, he discovered that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete factors, now known as genes. Mendel identified that for each trait, organisms inherit one gene from each parent, and that some genes are dominant and will always be expressed while others are recessive and only expressed when the dominant gene is not present. His work formed the basis of classical genetics and established the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
Genetics
-. Basic Principles of Mendelian Genetics and Patterns of Inheritance
-Molecular Genetics & Inheritance
-. Protein Synthesis
- Mutations
-. Manipulation of DNA
-. ABO blood groups and Rh Factors
Evolution
- Theories on the origin of life on Earth
-. Theories of Evolution
1. Gregor Mendel discovered genetics through experiments with pea plants. He found that traits separated and assorted independently during reproduction according to his laws of inheritance.
2. Genes determine traits and exist in different alleles that are passed from parents to offspring. Dominant alleles will be expressed over recessive alleles.
3. Mendel's experiments showed monohybrid and dihybrid inheritance followed predictable ratios through the generations. His work formed the foundations of classical genetics.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
3. Introduction to Genetics
• GENETICS – branch of biology that deals
with heredity and variation of organisms.
• Chromosomes carry the hereditary
information (genes)
• Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA
• DNA → RNA → Proteins
4. • Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs
Homologous Chromosomes
• New combinations of genes occur in sexual
reproduction
– Fertilization from two parents
5. Gregor Johann Mendel
• Austrian Monk, born in what is now Czech Republic in
1822
• Son of peasant farmer, studied
Theology and was ordained
priest Order St. Augustine.
• Went to the university of Vienna, where he
studied botany and learned the Scientific Method
• Worked with pure lines of peas for eight years
• Prior to Mendel, heredity was regarded as a "blending"
process and the offspring were essentially a "dilution"of
the different parental characteristics.
8. • In 1866 he published Experiments in Plant
Hybridization, (Versuche über Pflanzen-
Hybriden) in which he established his three
Principles of Inheritance
• He tried to repeat his work
in another plant, but didn’t
work because the plant
reproduced asexually! If…
• Work was largely ignored for
34 years, until 1900, when
3 independent botanists
rediscovered Mendel’s work.
9. • Mendel was the first biologist to use
Mathematics – to explain his results
quantitatively.
• Mendel predicted
The concept of genes
That genes occur in pairs
That one gene of each pair is
present in the gametes
10. Genetics terms you need to know:
• Gene – a unit of heredity;
a section of DNA sequence
encoding a single protein
• Genome – the entire set
of genes in an organism
• Alleles – two genes that occupy the same position
on homologous chromosomes and that cover the
same trait (like ‘flavors’ of a trait).
• Locus – a fixed location on a strand of DNA
where a gene or one of its alleles is located.
11. • Homozygous – having identical genes (one from
each parent) for a particular characteristic.
• Heterozygous – having two different genes for a
particular characteristic.
• Dominant – the allele of a gene that masks or
suppresses the expression of an alternate allele;
the trait appears in the heterozygous condition.
• Recessive – an allele that is masked by a
dominant allele; does not appear in the
heterozygous condition, only in homozygous.
12. • Genotype – the genetic makeup of an organisms
• Phenotype – the physical appearance
of an organism (Genotype + environment)
• Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross involving a
single pair of genes (one trait); parents differ by a
single trait.
• P = Parental generation
• F1 = First filial generation; offspring from a
genetic cross.
• F2 = Second filial generation of a genetic cross
13.
14. Monohybrid cross
• Parents differ by a single trait.
• Crossing two pea plants that differ in stem size,
one tall one short
T = allele for Tall
t = allele for dwarf
TT = homozygous tall plant
t t = homozygous dwarf plant
T T t t
15. Monohybrid cross for stem length:
T T t t
(tall) (dwarf)
P = parentals
true breeding,
homozygous plants:
F1 generation
is heterozygous:
T t
(all tall plants)
16. Punnett square
• A useful tool to do genetic crosses
• For a monohybrid cross, you need a square divided by
four….
• Looks like
a window
pane…
We use the
Punnett square
to predict the
genotypes and phenotypes of
the offspring.
17. Using a Punnett Square
STEPS:
1. determine the genotypes of the parent organisms
2. write down your "cross" (mating)
3. draw a p-square
Parent genotypes:
TT and t t
Cross
T T t t
18. Punnett square
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put
them "outside" the p-square
5. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling
in the p-square
6. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)
T t T t
T t T t
T T
t
t
Genotypes:
100% T t
Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants
T T t t
19. Monohybrid cross: F2 generation
• If you let the F1 generation self-fertilize, the next
monohybrid cross would be:
T t T t
(tall) (tall)
T T T t
T t t t
T t
T
t
Genotypes:
1 TT= Tall
2 Tt = Tall
1 tt = dwarf
Genotypic ratio= 1:2:1
Phenotype:
3 Tall
1 dwarf
Phenotypic ratio= 3:1
20. Secret of the Punnett Square
• Key to the Punnett Square:
• Determine the gametes of each parent…
• How? By “splitting” the genotypes of each parent:
If this is your cross T T t t
T T t t
The gametes are:
21. Once you have the gametes…
T T t t
T t T t
T t T t
T
T
t t
22. Shortcut for Punnett Square…
• You only need one box!
T T t t
T
t Genotypes:
100% T t
Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants
• If either parent is HOMOZYGOUS
T t
24. If you have another cross…
• A heterozygous with a homozygous
T t t t
T
t
t
T t
t t
Genotypes:
50% T t
50 % t t
Phenotypes:
50% Tall plants
50% Dwarf plants
You can
still use the
shortcut!
25. Another example: Flower color
For example, flower color:
P = purple (dominant)
p = white (recessive)
If you cross a homozygous Purple (PP) with a
homozygous white (pp):
P P p p
P p ALL PURPLE (Pp)
26. Cross the F1 generation:
P p P p
P P P p
P p p p
P
p
P p
Genotypes:
1 PP
2 Pp
1 pp
Phenotypes:
3 Purple
1 White
27. Mendel’s Principles
• 1. Principle of Dominance:
One allele masked another, one allele was
dominant over the other in the F1 generation.
• 2. Principle of Segregation:
When gametes are formed, the pairs of
hereditary factors (genes) become separated,
so that each sex cell (egg/sperm) receives
only one kind of gene.
28. Human case: CF
• Mendel’s Principles of Heredity apply universally
to all organisms.
• Cystic Fibrosis: a lethal genetic disease affecting
Caucasians.
• Caused by mutant recessive gene carried by 1 in
20 people of European descent (12M)
• One in 400 Caucasian couples will be both
carriers of CF – 1 in 4 children will have it.
• CF disease affects transport
in tissues – mucus is accumulated
in lungs, causing infections.
29. Inheritance pattern of CF
IF two parents carry the recessive gene of
Cystic Fibrosis (c), that is, they are
heterozygous (C c), one in four of their
children is expected to be homozygous for
cf and have the disease:
C C C c
C c c c
C c
C
c
C C = normal
C c = carrier, no symptoms
c c = has cystic fibrosis
30. Probabilities…
• Of course, the 1 in 4 probability of getting the
disease is just an expectation, and in reality,
any two carriers may have normal children.
• However, the greatest probability is for 1 in 4
children to be affected.
• Important factor when prospective parents are
concerned about their chances of having
affected children.
• Now, 1 in 29 Americans is a symptom-less
carrier (Cf cf) of the gene.
31. Gaucher Disease
• Gaucher Disease is a rare, genetic disease. It
causes lipid-storage disorder (lipids accumulate in
spleen, liver, bone marrow)
• It is the most common genetic disease affecting
Jewish people of Eastern European ancestry
(1 in 500 incidence; rest of pop. 1 in 100,000)
32. Dihybrid crosses
• Matings that involve parents that differ in two
genes (two independent traits)
For example, flower color:
P = purple (dominant)
p = white (recessive)
and stem length:
T = tall t = short
33. Dihybrid cross: flower color and
stem length
TT PP tt pp
(tall, purple) (short, white)
Possible Gametes for parents
T P and t p
F1 Generation: All tall, purple flowers (Tt Pp)
TtPp TtPp TtPp TtPp
TtPp TtPp TtPp TtPp
TtPp TtPp TtPp TtPp
TtPp TtPp TtPp TtPp
tp tp tp tp
TP
TP
TP
TP
34. Dihybrid cross: flower color and
stem length (shortcut)
TT PP tt pp
(tall, purple) (short, white)
Possible Gametes for parents
F1 Generation: All tall, purple flowers (Tt Pp)
T t P p
T P t p
T P
t p
35. Dihybrid cross F2
If F1 generation is allowed to self pollinate,
Mendel observed 4 phenotypes:
Tt Pp Tt Pp
(tall, purple) (tall, purple)
Possible gametes:
TP Tp tP tp
Four phenotypes observed
Tall, purple (9); Tall, white (3); Short, purple (3); Short white (1)
TTPP TTPp TtPP TtPp
TTPp TTpp TtPp Ttpp
TtPP TtPp ttPP ttPp
TtPp Ttpp ttPp ttpp
TP Tp tP tp
TP
Tp
tP
tp
36. Dihybrid cross
9 Tall purple
3 Tall white
3 Short purple
1 Short white
TTPP TTPp TtPP TtPp
TTPp TTpp TtPp Ttpp
TtPP TtPp ttPP ttPp
TtPp Ttpp ttPp ttpp
TP Tp tP tp
TP
Tp
tP
tp
Phenotype Ratio = 9:3:3:1
38. Principle of Independent Assortment
• Based on these results, Mendel postulated the
3. Principle of Independent Assortment:
“Members of one gene pair segregate
independently from other gene pairs during
gamete formation”
Genes get shuffled – these many combinations are
one of the advantages of sexual reproduction
39. Relation of gene segregation to
meiosis…
• There’s a correlation between the movement
of chromosomes in meiosis and the
segregation of alleles that occurs in meiosis
40. Test cross
When you have an individual with an unknown
genotype, you do a test cross.
Test cross: Cross with a homozygous recessive
individual.
For example, a plant with purple flowers can
either be PP or Pp… therefore, you cross the
plant with a pp (white flowers, homozygous
recessive)
P ? pp
41. Test cross
• If you get all 100% purple flowers, then the
unknown parent was PP…
P p P p
P p P p
P P
p
p
P p p p
P p p p
P p
p
p
•If you get 50% white,
50% purple flowers,
then the unknown
parent was Pp…
42. Dihybrid test cross??
If you had a tall, purple plant, how would you
know what genotype it is?
tt pp
?? ??
1. TTPP
2. TTPp
3. TtPP
4. TtPp
43. Beyond Mendelian Genetics:
Incomplete Dominance
Mendel was lucky!
Traits he chose in the
pea plant showed up
very clearly…
One allele was dominant over another, so
phenotypes were easy to recognize.
But sometimes phenotypes are not very
obvious…
44. Incomplete Dominance
Snapdragon flowers come in many colors.
If you cross a red snapdragon (RR) with a white
snapdragon (rr)
You get PINK flowers (Rr)!
R R
R r
r r
Genes show incomplete dominance
when the heterozygous phenotype
is intermediate.
46. What happens if you cross a pink with a white?
Incomplete dominance
A pink with a red?
47. Summary of Genetics
• Chromosomes carry hereditary info (genes)
• Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs
• New combinations of genes occur in sexual
reproduction
• Monohybrid vs. Dihybrid crosses
• Mendel’s Principles:
– Dominance: one allele masks another
– Segregation: genes become separated in gamete formation
– Independent Assortment: Members of one gene pair
segregate independently from other gene pairs during gamete
formation