- Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri was an Italian mathematician born in 1598 who developed the method of indivisibles, a precursor to integral calculus.
- His method treated areas as composed of lines and volumes as composed of planar areas, allowing him to solve problems involving areas, volumes, and centers of mass.
- Though crude, his method provided practical techniques for computing areas and volumes and influenced later mathematicians like Kepler and Galileo.
The document summarizes key details about Jose Rizal's writing of his novel Noli Me Tangere. It describes how the idea for the novel emerged in 1884 from Rizal and other Filipino intellectuals who wanted to write about the suffering of the Filipino people under Spanish rule. It then outlines where and over what period of time Rizal wrote the novel, being inspired by Uncle Tom's Cabin. Finally, it discusses the novel's publication in 1887 and people who helped fund and distribute copies of it.
Rizal studied philosophy and letters and then medicine at the University of Santo Tomas in Manila. He also took surveying courses at Ateneo de Manila where he excelled. While in university, Rizal was involved in several organizations and had romantic relationships. He wrote several literary works and decided to continue his medical studies abroad in Spain due to rampant discrimination in the Philippines.
The document summarizes Rizal's inspiration and process for writing his second novel El Filibusterismo. It describes how he was inspired by The Count of Monte Cristo and started writing the novel in 1887. He finished it in 1891 in Belgium, choosing a printing house due to financial difficulties. The novel was nearly not published due to lack of funds but was saved by donations from friends. It was dedicated to priests executed by Spain and criticized Spanish rule in the Philippines. The document also briefly discusses Rizal's plans for a third novel and proposals to reform the Tagalog language.
From 1565 to 1898, Spain governed the Philippines through governors appointed by the Spanish Crown. During this time there were over 50 governors, with terms ranging from a few months to over a decade. In 1898, the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War and established a military government in the Philippines. From 1901 to 1935, the Philippines was governed by the United States through a Governor-General appointed by the U.S. President.
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. He was a child prodigy educated primarily by his father. Some of Pascal's key contributions included developing Pascal's triangle to express binomial coefficients, inventing the syringe and hydraulic press, and establishing Pascal's law of fluid pressure. He also made advances in probability theory and the study of cycloids. Pascal invented an early mechanical calculator called the Pascaline to aid with mathematical computations. He made many contributions to science before his early death at age 39.
Jose Rizal was born in 1861 in Calamba, Laguna to a wealthy Filipino family. He demonstrated intelligence from a young age and received an education from private tutors before attending school in Biñan at age nine, where he excelled in Latin and Spanish. After a year and a half in Biñan, Rizal returned to Calamba, having shown great interest in reading, writing, painting, and drawing from an early age. His childhood was surrounded by a loving family and he developed an appreciation for nature.
Rizal spent time in Biarritz, France where he befriended the Boustead family and fell in love with their daughter Nellie. While staying with them, he finished writing his novel El Filibusterismo. However, his romance with Nellie did not result in marriage due to religious differences. After finishing his novel, Rizal left Biarritz and traveled to Paris and Brussels, where he focused on revising and publishing El Filibusterismo.
Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer born in 1564 in Pisa, Italy. He made many important scientific discoveries through his use of the telescope, including observing mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four largest moons of Jupiter. Galileo also supported Copernicus' theory that the Earth and planets revolve around the sun, which brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church and led to his imprisonment. Galileo made many contributions to the scientific revolution through his innovative use of the telescope and his willingness to challenge established scientific beliefs of the time.
The document summarizes key details about Jose Rizal's writing of his novel Noli Me Tangere. It describes how the idea for the novel emerged in 1884 from Rizal and other Filipino intellectuals who wanted to write about the suffering of the Filipino people under Spanish rule. It then outlines where and over what period of time Rizal wrote the novel, being inspired by Uncle Tom's Cabin. Finally, it discusses the novel's publication in 1887 and people who helped fund and distribute copies of it.
Rizal studied philosophy and letters and then medicine at the University of Santo Tomas in Manila. He also took surveying courses at Ateneo de Manila where he excelled. While in university, Rizal was involved in several organizations and had romantic relationships. He wrote several literary works and decided to continue his medical studies abroad in Spain due to rampant discrimination in the Philippines.
The document summarizes Rizal's inspiration and process for writing his second novel El Filibusterismo. It describes how he was inspired by The Count of Monte Cristo and started writing the novel in 1887. He finished it in 1891 in Belgium, choosing a printing house due to financial difficulties. The novel was nearly not published due to lack of funds but was saved by donations from friends. It was dedicated to priests executed by Spain and criticized Spanish rule in the Philippines. The document also briefly discusses Rizal's plans for a third novel and proposals to reform the Tagalog language.
From 1565 to 1898, Spain governed the Philippines through governors appointed by the Spanish Crown. During this time there were over 50 governors, with terms ranging from a few months to over a decade. In 1898, the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War and established a military government in the Philippines. From 1901 to 1935, the Philippines was governed by the United States through a Governor-General appointed by the U.S. President.
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. He was a child prodigy educated primarily by his father. Some of Pascal's key contributions included developing Pascal's triangle to express binomial coefficients, inventing the syringe and hydraulic press, and establishing Pascal's law of fluid pressure. He also made advances in probability theory and the study of cycloids. Pascal invented an early mechanical calculator called the Pascaline to aid with mathematical computations. He made many contributions to science before his early death at age 39.
Jose Rizal was born in 1861 in Calamba, Laguna to a wealthy Filipino family. He demonstrated intelligence from a young age and received an education from private tutors before attending school in Biñan at age nine, where he excelled in Latin and Spanish. After a year and a half in Biñan, Rizal returned to Calamba, having shown great interest in reading, writing, painting, and drawing from an early age. His childhood was surrounded by a loving family and he developed an appreciation for nature.
Rizal spent time in Biarritz, France where he befriended the Boustead family and fell in love with their daughter Nellie. While staying with them, he finished writing his novel El Filibusterismo. However, his romance with Nellie did not result in marriage due to religious differences. After finishing his novel, Rizal left Biarritz and traveled to Paris and Brussels, where he focused on revising and publishing El Filibusterismo.
Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer born in 1564 in Pisa, Italy. He made many important scientific discoveries through his use of the telescope, including observing mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four largest moons of Jupiter. Galileo also supported Copernicus' theory that the Earth and planets revolve around the sun, which brought him into conflict with the Catholic Church and led to his imprisonment. Galileo made many contributions to the scientific revolution through his innovative use of the telescope and his willingness to challenge established scientific beliefs of the time.
Rizal published his first novel Noli Me Tangere in Berlin in 1887 after years of writing and revising the manuscript in locations across Europe. The bleak winter of 1886 was a difficult time for Rizal in Berlin as he had run out of money, but his friend Maximo Viola loaned him funds to publish the novel. The printing was finished on March 21, 1887. Inspired by Uncle Tom's Cabin, Rizal sought to depict the miseries of the Filipino people under Spanish rule through the novel.
1. The document discusses Rizal's unfinished third novel, which he intended to write in Tagalog about Tagalog customs.
2. Rizal began working on this third novel on a ship from Marseilles to Hong Kong in 1891. He wanted to describe the virtues and defects of the Tagalog people in a beautiful theme.
3. The document analyzes different theories about the plot and title of Rizal's unfinished third novel based on his letters, determining it was likely about a priest named Padre Agaton ruling over a small town.
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky was a Russian mathematician born in 1792 in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. He studied at Kazan State University and later became a professor and rector there, devoting much of his career to developing the university. Lobachevsky is considered the founder of hyperbolic geometry and made many contributions to mathematics, including developing a method for approximating algebraic equation roots. As rector of Kazan University for 19 years, Lobachevsky expanded facilities, raised education standards, and worked to minimize damage from disasters. He remains an important historical figure in Tatarstan for his scientific achievements and role in developing the regional university.
Rizal went to Paris in 1889 during the Universal Exposition. Despite the festivities in the city, he continued his literary, artistic, and patriotic pursuits. He lived with two other Filipinos in a small room as accommodation was difficult to find due to the Exposition. In Paris, Rizal founded several organizations for Filipinos, including the Kidlat Club and Indios Bravos society. He also published his annotated edition of Morga's book. Rizal was fascinated by the Exposition and attended the opening ceremonies with his compatriots.
1. Jose Rizal was born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba, Laguna to Francisco Mercado Rizal and Teodora Alonso Realonda.
2. He was one of 11 children, with his father being a tenant farmer and his mother having a background in education.
3. At his birth, the Philippines was under Spanish colonial rule and experiencing a period of relative peace and stability compared to unrest in other parts of the world.
Taqi al Din (16th-century Muslim Astronomer)Rehan Shaikh
Taqi al-Din was an influential 16th century polymath from Damascus who made significant contributions across many fields including astronomy, physics, engineering, and optics. He served as the official astronomer for the Ottoman Sultan Selim II. Some of his key inventions and achievements included building the largest astronomical observatory of its time in Istanbul, developing highly accurate astronomical instruments and clocks including the first to measure time in seconds, and publishing works describing early concepts of steam power and telescopes. His extensive writings on optics significantly advanced the scientific understanding of light, reflection, refraction, and the formation of color.
Rizal studied medicine in the Philippines and Spain, specializing in ophthalmology. He worked at eye clinics in France under Dr. Louis De Wecker and in Germany under Professor Otto Becker. In 1887, he returned to the Philippines and successfully removed his mother's cataract, fulfilling his dream of treating her eyes. He later practiced ophthalmology while in exile in Hong Kong and Dapitan.
The document discusses George Polya's four-step process for mathematical problem solving - understanding the problem, devising a plan, implementing the plan, and reflecting on the solution. It provides examples of strategies teachers can use to help students with each step, such as paraphrasing problems, estimating solutions, using logical reasoning and Venn diagrams, and discussing different problem-solving approaches.
Rizal was forced to leave the Philippines for a second time in 1888 at age 27 due to powerful enemies. He boarded a steamer bound for Hong Kong. He did not stop in Amoy due to feeling unwell and heavy rain. In Hong Kong, a British colony, he stayed in a hotel and met several Filipinos. He described Hong Kong as a small but clean city with many ethnicities. Rizal then visited Macau, a Portuguese colony, staying at the house of a Filipino gentleman for two days. During his two week vacation in Hong Kong, Rizal studied Chinese life, language, customs, and celebrations. He departed Hong Kong on February 22nd, 1888 aboard an
Cubism was an early 20th century abstract art style developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque that revolutionized European painting and sculpture. It involved depicting subjects from multiple viewpoints to represent the subject in a multidimensional way. The two main phases were Analytic Cubism, which used monochromatic colors and focused on reducing forms to geometric shapes, and Synthetic Cubism, which introduced collage and a wider use of color. Cubism influenced many later artistic movements and fundamentally changed how visual art was conceived.
Rizal lived in London from May 1888 to March 1889. During this time, he engaged in Filipiniana studies, completed annotating Morga's book, wrote articles for La Solidaridad, penned a famous letter to the women of Malolos, and carried on correspondence. He had a romance with Gertrude Beckett. Rizal wrote pieces criticizing Fray Rodriguez and depicting conditions in the Philippines. Before leaving for Paris in March 1889, he finished sculptures representing Prometheus and allegories of science and death.
The document summarizes the major revolts against Spanish rule in the Philippines over 333 years. It outlines the key causes of the revolts as issues relating to religion, abusive economic policies like taxes and forced labor, land grabbing, and the desire for political power. It then discusses some of the major revolts in different regions led by figures like Diego Silang and provides context on why the revolts ultimately failed due to strategies like divide-and-rule and betrayal.
Rizal spent 1885-1886 in Paris, working as an assistant to a leading French ophthalmologist. He socialized with friends like Juan Luna and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo. Rizal also posed for some of Luna's paintings. In early 1886 he reluctantly left Paris for Germany, visiting cities like Strasbourg, Heidelberg, and Leipzig. In Heidelberg, he studied under Dr. Otto Becker at the University Eye Hospital. He befriended Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt and corresponded with him, sharing Tagalog books. Rizal translated works by Schiller and Hans Christian Andersen into Tagalog. In late 1886 he traveled to Dresden
Chapter 19 El Filibusterismo Published in GhentRalph_MD
Rizal began writing El Filibusterismo in 1887 and finished the manuscript in 1891 in Biarritz, France after 3 years of writing and revising. He moved to cheaper Ghent, Belgium to have it printed. Living frugally, he struggled to fund the printing until Valentin Ventura provided money. The novel was published on September 18, 1891. It depicted the worsening oppression of the Spanish colonial regime in the Philippines and was both praised and banned upon release.
Rizal enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas in 1877 at age 16 to study philosophy and letters, and later medicine. He faced opposition from his mother but support from his father and brother. At UST, he experienced discrimination from Spanish professors. Rizal excelled in literature and poetry competitions. He socialized with girls from prominent Filipino families. After four years, he decided to continue his studies abroad in Spain with the support of his siblings and friends, without informing his parents or the Spanish authorities.
This document provides an overview of important mathematical concepts. It begins by explaining that mathematics is an exciting subject that requires understanding fundamental concepts. The work is designed to give a comprehensive overview of important mathematical phenomena and serve as a reference. Each topic is synthesized into short, easy to read segments for an overview. Successful study strategies are outlined, including previewing topics, taking notes, reviewing figures and formulas, summarizing in your own words, and getting help before it's too late. Key areas of mathematics like arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and calculus are then defined in 1-2 sentences each.
Rizal returned to the Philippines in 1887 after studying in Europe for 5 years. He was warned not to return due to angering the friars with his novel Noli Me Tangere. In Calamba, he opened a medical clinic and school. However, the friars plotted against him due to his exposure of abuses on their estates. Amidst threats to his life, Rizal reluctantly left the Philippines again in 1888.
Rizal published his first novel Noli Me Tangere in Berlin in 1887 after years of writing and revising the manuscript in locations across Europe. The bleak winter of 1886 was a difficult time for Rizal in Berlin as he had run out of money, but his friend Maximo Viola loaned him funds to publish the novel. The printing was finished on March 21, 1887. Inspired by Uncle Tom's Cabin, Rizal sought to depict the miseries of the Filipino people under Spanish rule through the novel.
1. The document discusses Rizal's unfinished third novel, which he intended to write in Tagalog about Tagalog customs.
2. Rizal began working on this third novel on a ship from Marseilles to Hong Kong in 1891. He wanted to describe the virtues and defects of the Tagalog people in a beautiful theme.
3. The document analyzes different theories about the plot and title of Rizal's unfinished third novel based on his letters, determining it was likely about a priest named Padre Agaton ruling over a small town.
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky was a Russian mathematician born in 1792 in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. He studied at Kazan State University and later became a professor and rector there, devoting much of his career to developing the university. Lobachevsky is considered the founder of hyperbolic geometry and made many contributions to mathematics, including developing a method for approximating algebraic equation roots. As rector of Kazan University for 19 years, Lobachevsky expanded facilities, raised education standards, and worked to minimize damage from disasters. He remains an important historical figure in Tatarstan for his scientific achievements and role in developing the regional university.
Rizal went to Paris in 1889 during the Universal Exposition. Despite the festivities in the city, he continued his literary, artistic, and patriotic pursuits. He lived with two other Filipinos in a small room as accommodation was difficult to find due to the Exposition. In Paris, Rizal founded several organizations for Filipinos, including the Kidlat Club and Indios Bravos society. He also published his annotated edition of Morga's book. Rizal was fascinated by the Exposition and attended the opening ceremonies with his compatriots.
1. Jose Rizal was born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba, Laguna to Francisco Mercado Rizal and Teodora Alonso Realonda.
2. He was one of 11 children, with his father being a tenant farmer and his mother having a background in education.
3. At his birth, the Philippines was under Spanish colonial rule and experiencing a period of relative peace and stability compared to unrest in other parts of the world.
Taqi al Din (16th-century Muslim Astronomer)Rehan Shaikh
Taqi al-Din was an influential 16th century polymath from Damascus who made significant contributions across many fields including astronomy, physics, engineering, and optics. He served as the official astronomer for the Ottoman Sultan Selim II. Some of his key inventions and achievements included building the largest astronomical observatory of its time in Istanbul, developing highly accurate astronomical instruments and clocks including the first to measure time in seconds, and publishing works describing early concepts of steam power and telescopes. His extensive writings on optics significantly advanced the scientific understanding of light, reflection, refraction, and the formation of color.
Rizal studied medicine in the Philippines and Spain, specializing in ophthalmology. He worked at eye clinics in France under Dr. Louis De Wecker and in Germany under Professor Otto Becker. In 1887, he returned to the Philippines and successfully removed his mother's cataract, fulfilling his dream of treating her eyes. He later practiced ophthalmology while in exile in Hong Kong and Dapitan.
The document discusses George Polya's four-step process for mathematical problem solving - understanding the problem, devising a plan, implementing the plan, and reflecting on the solution. It provides examples of strategies teachers can use to help students with each step, such as paraphrasing problems, estimating solutions, using logical reasoning and Venn diagrams, and discussing different problem-solving approaches.
Rizal was forced to leave the Philippines for a second time in 1888 at age 27 due to powerful enemies. He boarded a steamer bound for Hong Kong. He did not stop in Amoy due to feeling unwell and heavy rain. In Hong Kong, a British colony, he stayed in a hotel and met several Filipinos. He described Hong Kong as a small but clean city with many ethnicities. Rizal then visited Macau, a Portuguese colony, staying at the house of a Filipino gentleman for two days. During his two week vacation in Hong Kong, Rizal studied Chinese life, language, customs, and celebrations. He departed Hong Kong on February 22nd, 1888 aboard an
Cubism was an early 20th century abstract art style developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque that revolutionized European painting and sculpture. It involved depicting subjects from multiple viewpoints to represent the subject in a multidimensional way. The two main phases were Analytic Cubism, which used monochromatic colors and focused on reducing forms to geometric shapes, and Synthetic Cubism, which introduced collage and a wider use of color. Cubism influenced many later artistic movements and fundamentally changed how visual art was conceived.
Rizal lived in London from May 1888 to March 1889. During this time, he engaged in Filipiniana studies, completed annotating Morga's book, wrote articles for La Solidaridad, penned a famous letter to the women of Malolos, and carried on correspondence. He had a romance with Gertrude Beckett. Rizal wrote pieces criticizing Fray Rodriguez and depicting conditions in the Philippines. Before leaving for Paris in March 1889, he finished sculptures representing Prometheus and allegories of science and death.
The document summarizes the major revolts against Spanish rule in the Philippines over 333 years. It outlines the key causes of the revolts as issues relating to religion, abusive economic policies like taxes and forced labor, land grabbing, and the desire for political power. It then discusses some of the major revolts in different regions led by figures like Diego Silang and provides context on why the revolts ultimately failed due to strategies like divide-and-rule and betrayal.
Rizal spent 1885-1886 in Paris, working as an assistant to a leading French ophthalmologist. He socialized with friends like Juan Luna and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo. Rizal also posed for some of Luna's paintings. In early 1886 he reluctantly left Paris for Germany, visiting cities like Strasbourg, Heidelberg, and Leipzig. In Heidelberg, he studied under Dr. Otto Becker at the University Eye Hospital. He befriended Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt and corresponded with him, sharing Tagalog books. Rizal translated works by Schiller and Hans Christian Andersen into Tagalog. In late 1886 he traveled to Dresden
Chapter 19 El Filibusterismo Published in GhentRalph_MD
Rizal began writing El Filibusterismo in 1887 and finished the manuscript in 1891 in Biarritz, France after 3 years of writing and revising. He moved to cheaper Ghent, Belgium to have it printed. Living frugally, he struggled to fund the printing until Valentin Ventura provided money. The novel was published on September 18, 1891. It depicted the worsening oppression of the Spanish colonial regime in the Philippines and was both praised and banned upon release.
Rizal enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas in 1877 at age 16 to study philosophy and letters, and later medicine. He faced opposition from his mother but support from his father and brother. At UST, he experienced discrimination from Spanish professors. Rizal excelled in literature and poetry competitions. He socialized with girls from prominent Filipino families. After four years, he decided to continue his studies abroad in Spain with the support of his siblings and friends, without informing his parents or the Spanish authorities.
This document provides an overview of important mathematical concepts. It begins by explaining that mathematics is an exciting subject that requires understanding fundamental concepts. The work is designed to give a comprehensive overview of important mathematical phenomena and serve as a reference. Each topic is synthesized into short, easy to read segments for an overview. Successful study strategies are outlined, including previewing topics, taking notes, reviewing figures and formulas, summarizing in your own words, and getting help before it's too late. Key areas of mathematics like arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and calculus are then defined in 1-2 sentences each.
Rizal returned to the Philippines in 1887 after studying in Europe for 5 years. He was warned not to return due to angering the friars with his novel Noli Me Tangere. In Calamba, he opened a medical clinic and school. However, the friars plotted against him due to his exposure of abuses on their estates. Amidst threats to his life, Rizal reluctantly left the Philippines again in 1888.
René Descartes introduced innovative algebraic techniques for analyzing geometric problems and understanding the connection between a curve's construction and algebraic equation in his work La Géométrie
Archimedes was a Greek mathematician, inventor and engineer from Syracuse, Sicily in the 3rd century BCE. He made important contributions to mathematics through developing new calculation techniques and applying mathematics to physical problems. Some of his key achievements included using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area of shapes and volumes of solids with curved surfaces, proving that the volume and surface area of a sphere is two-thirds that of its circumscribing cylinder, and discovering Archimedes' principle which states that the buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. He is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of antiquity.
Diophantus was a Greek mathematician who lived in Alexandria during the 3rd century CE. He wrote the Arithmetica, which was divided into 13 books and introduced symbolic notation for unknowns and exponents. The Arithmetica contained problems involving determining integer and rational solutions to polynomial equations. Pappus of Alexandria lived in the 4th century CE and wrote the Synagoge or Collection, which contained summaries of earlier mathematical work across various topics, including constructions, number theory, and properties of curves and polyhedra. The Collection helped preserve important mathematical concepts and problems from antiquity.
“Conic section” is a fundamental of the Mathematics. This
report is made from my studying about the conic section in the
Mathematics books and on the internet. This report contains
topics that involve with conic section such as: The history of Conic
section studying, Parabola, Ellipse, Hyperbola and their
applications with figures may help you to understand easily.
This report is may use to refer for next time and its can be
usefulness for the readers.
This document discusses dimensions in mathematics and physics. It begins by explaining one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional objects like lines, squares, cubes, and tesseracts. It then discusses higher dimensions posited by theories like string theory and M-theory. Key definitions of dimension discussed include topological dimension, Hausdorff dimension, and covering dimension. In physics, it discusses the three spatial dimensions and time as the fourth dimension, as well as theories proposing additional curled up dimensions to explain phenomena.
Sir Isaac Newton was an influential English scientist in the late 1600s. He developed calculus and described universal gravitation and the laws of motion, which dominated scientific views for centuries. Newton invented calculus to solve problems in physics involving instantaneous rates of change. He and Gottfried Leibniz are credited with developing calculus independently and establishing its modern foundations and applications.
Rene Descartes was a 17th century French mathematician known as the father of analytic geometry. He developed Cartesian coordinates and the concept of graphing geometric shapes as equations. This allowed geometry problems to be represented algebraically and algebra problems to be visualized geometrically, linking the two fields for the first time. Some of Descartes' key contributions included establishing standard algebraic notation that is still used today and discovering general formulas for quadratic, cubic and higher degree equations. His work was foundational for the development of calculus.
The document provides a summary of coordinate geometry. It begins with definitions of key terms like the coordinate plane, axes, quadrants, and coordinates. It then discusses finding the midpoint, distance, and section formula between two points. Methods for finding the coordinates of the centroid and area of a triangle are presented. The document outlines different forms of equations for straight lines, including their slopes and the general equation of a line. It concludes with some uses of coordinate geometry, such as determining if lines are parallel/perpendicular.
1. Euclid's Elements/Postulates - Euclid wrote a text titled 'Elements' in 300 BC which presented geometry through a small set of statements called postulates that are accepted as true. He was able to derive much of planar geometry from just five postulates, including the parallel postulate which caused much debate.
2. Euclid's Contribution to Geometry - Euclid is considered the "Father of Geometry" for his work Elements, which introduced deductive reasoning to mathematics. Elements influenced the development of the subject through its logical presentation of geometry from definitions and postulates.
3. Similar Triangles - Triangles are similar if they have the same shape but not necessarily the same
A Century of SurprisesThe nineteenth century saw a critical exam.docxransayo
A Century of Surprises
The nineteenth century saw a critical examination of Euclidean geometry, especially the parallel postulate which Euclid took for granted. It says, essentially, that through a given point P not on a given line L, there exists exactly one line parallel to L. Any other line through P will, if extended far enough, meet L. Mathematicians sought a proof of this postulate for 2,000 years even though Euclid presented it as a self-evident idea not requiring proof. They did this because to them it was not self-evident, but instead, they thought, a consequence of previous results and axioms which were self-evident.
After failing to prove the parallel postulate, mathematicians wondered if there was a consistent “alternative” geometry in which the parallel postulate failed. To their amazement, they found two! The secret was to look at curved surfaces. You see, the plane is flat – it has no curvature. (Actually, its curvature is 0.)
Consider the surface of a giant sphere like Earth (approximately). To do geometry, we need a concept analogous to the straight lines of plane geometry. What do straight lines in the plane do? Firstly, the line segment PQ yields the shortest distance between points P and Q. Secondly, a bicyclist traveling from P to Q in a straight line will not have to turn his handlebars to the right or left. His motto will be “straight ahead.” Similarly, a motorcyclist driving along the equator between two points will be traveling the shortest distance between them and will appear to be traveling straight ahead, even though the equator is curved. Like his planar counterpoint on the bicycle, our motorcyclist will not have to turn his handlebars to the left or right. The same would hold true if he were to travel along a meridian, which is sometimes called a longitude line. (Longitude lines pass through the North and South Poles.)
Meridians and the equator have in common that they are the intersections of the earth with giant planes passing through the center of Earth. In the case of the equator, the plane is (approximately) horizontal, while for the meridians, the planes are (approximately) vertical. Of course, there are infinitely many other planes passing through the center of Earth which determine many other so-called “great circles” which are neither horizontal nor vertical. Given two points, such as New York City and London, the shortest route is not a latitude line but rather an arc of the great circle formed by intersecting Earth with a plane passing through New York, London, and the center of Earth. This plane is unique since three non-collinear points in space determine a plane, in a manner analogous to the way two points in the plane determine a line.
Geometers call a curve on a surface which yields the shortest distance between any two points on it a geodesic curve, or just a geodesic for short. This enables us to do geometry on curved surfaces. Imagine a triangle on Earth with one vertex at the North Pole and t.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) ijceronline
This document provides a historical overview of the development of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. It discusses early contributions from mathematicians like Diophantus, Cardan, Euler, and Gauss. It describes how earlier proofs were flawed because they assumed the existence of roots before proving them. The first rigorous proof is credited to Gauss in 1799, who showed that assuming the existence of roots first is circular reasoning. Later proofs include one by Argand in 1814 using the concept of minimization of continuous functions.
Trigonometry developed from studying right triangles in ancient Egypt and Babylon, with early work done by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It was further advanced by Indian, Islamic, and Chinese mathematicians. Key developments include Madhava's sine table, al-Khwarizmi's sine and cosine tables, and Shen Kuo and Guo Shoujing's work in spherical trigonometry. European mathematicians like Regiomontanus, Rheticus, and Euler established trigonometry as a distinct field and defined functions analytically. Trigonometry is now used in many areas beyond triangle calculations.
The document discusses the origins of calculus and whether it was invented by Newton, Leibniz, or Indian mathematicians. It provides background on Newton, Leibniz, and notes that Indian mathematicians were using concepts of calculus as early as the 10th century. It discusses several Indian mathematicians who made contributions involving concepts now seen as integral to calculus, such as derivatives, integrals, power series, and infinitesimals. These contributions began as early as the 10th century and continued through the Kerala school of the 14th-16th centuries, predating Newton and Leibniz by several centuries.
Euclid's Geometry is considered one of the most influential textbooks of all time. It introduced the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today. The document provides background on Euclid and the key aspects of his influential work Elements, including:
- Euclid organized geometry into a deductive system based on definitions, common notions, postulates, and propositions/theorems proved from these foundations.
- The Elements covers 13 books on topics like plane geometry, number theory, and solid geometry, containing over 450 theorems deduced from the initial assumptions.
- It established geometry as a logical science and had a major impact on mathematics and science for over 2000
Euclid was a Greek mathematician from Alexandria who is considered the most influential mathematician of ancient times. He wrote Elements, one of the most influential works in mathematics, which was used as a textbook for over 2000 years. He proved many important theorems in number theory and geometry. Archimedes was a Greek mathematician considered the greatest of ancient times. He made important advances in geometry, number theory, algebra, and analysis. He anticipated integral calculus and determined formulas for volumes and areas of spheres. Ramanujan was an Indian mathematician who made extensive contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions despite having no formal training in pure mathematics. He produced over 3000 results, conjectures, and theorems and
Archimedes was a renowned Greek mathematician born around 287 BC in Syracuse, Italy. He made seminal contributions to geometry, calculus, and physics through works such as Measurement of the Circle, On the Sphere and Cylinder, and On Floating Bodies. He discovered fundamental theorems in mechanics, hydrostatics, and applied mathematics. Archimedes is renowned for his principle of buoyancy, formulas for calculating the surface area and volume of a sphere, and ingenious war machines he invented to defend Syracuse from Roman invaders. He was killed during the Siege of Syracuse by a Roman soldier despite orders to spare his life.
Euclid's Geometry outlines Euclid's influential work on geometry from around 300 BCE. It defines Euclidean geometry as the study of plane and solid figures using axioms and theorems. It also distinguishes between axioms, which are general mathematical assumptions, and postulates, which are specific geometric assumptions. Finally, it briefly discusses several influential mathematicians throughout history and their contributions, including Euclid, Ramanujan, Descartes, Aryabhatta, and Thales.
Similar to Bonaventura ,Cavalieri and Sir George Gabriel Stokes, First Baronet, (20)
The document contains 10 rounds of analogy questions with 6 answer options each: A) Synonyms, B) Antonyms, C) Object/Action, D) Source/Product, E) Part/Whole, F) Animal/Habitat. The analogies compare two related concepts and the task is to choose which of the 6 categories best describes their relationship.
The
Five
Dimensions
Of
Multicultural
Education
- Content Integration
- Knowledge Construction Process
- Prejudice Reduction
- Equity Pedagogy
- Empowering School Culture and Social Structure
SELF-TRANSFORMATION
Teachers ought to do three things, and that they have to teach students to do these three things.
And that is to know, to care and to act.
That is to say, in order to bring about reform and to bring about this self-transformation, we need knowledge. We cannot do it in ignorance. But knowledge is not enough. We also have to care and act.
DEFINITION OF SCHEMA
SCHEMATA
TWO WAYS OF USING THE SCHEMATA
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHEMA
- FLEXIBILITY
- CREATIVITY
PRE -READING ACTIVITIES
3 STEP ASSESSMENT/INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE
LIST OF PRE-READING ACTIVITIES
THOR
DESCRIPTION
- THOR'S POSSESSION
- Fertility and Agriculture
- Thor’s Role in the Viking Age
- THOR AND ODIN
- Which god to be worship?
THOR OR ODIN
- CULTURE AND TRADITION
- RELIGION
-THOR’S ADVENTURE
- THE TALE OF THOR DISGUISED AS A BRIDE
- THOR IN THE LAND OF THE GIANTS
- THOR AND JORMUNGAND
RAGNAROK
The document provides biographical information about François Villon, a 15th century French poet. It discusses his uncertain background and reckless lifestyle. Villon is best known for his poetry works called Testaments and the Ballad of the Dead Ladies. The Ballad of the Dead Ladies, translated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, asks where famous women of history and myth have gone, comparing them to the snows of past years that have melted away with time. The poem's theme addresses the inevitability of death and the effects of time on all people and things.
Developmental Reading: Reading as a Communication ProcessJoanna Rose Saculo
This document discusses the characteristics of effective communication through language. It identifies five key characteristics: 1) clarity - using concrete rather than abstract language, 2) simplicity - expressing ideas directly without unnecessary complexity, 3) adapted language - using vocabulary appropriate for the audience, 4) being forceful - using stimulating language that engages the reader, and 5) vivid language - employing descriptive words that appeal to the senses. Overall, the document advocates for using clear, simple, adapted, engaging and vivid language to best communicate through written text.
A Martyrs Last Homecoming
Confiscation of Rizal's diary
Unsuccessful Rescue in Singapore
Arrival in Manila
Preliminary Investigation
Rizal Chooses His defender
Reading of Information of charges to the accused
" Accused of being the principal organizer and the living soul of the Filipino insurrection, the founder of societies ,periodicals, and book dedicated to fomenting and propagating the ideas of rebellion."
Definition of assessment,
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
EDUCATIONAL DECISION
FACTORS WHY WE PLAN ASSESSMENT DEVICES,
Criteria for selecting Assessment instrument
,PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT,
Assessment can do more than simply diagnose and identify students’ learning needs; it can be used to assist improvements across the education system in a cycle of continuous improvement:
PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Rizal sought solace in Biarritz, France after disappointment in Madrid. He was a guest of the Boustead family and enjoyed fencing and parties. In Biarritz, he romanced Nellie Boustead but his marriage proposal was rejected for refusing to convert to Protestantism and because Nellie's mother disapproved of him. During his month-long vacation in Biarritz, Rizal forgot his bitter Madrid memories. He finished writing his second novel El Filibusterismo there before departing for Paris and later returning to Brussels.
How to Setup Default Value for a Field in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, we can set a default value for a field during the creation of a record for a model. We have many methods in odoo for setting a default value to the field.
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إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
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Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Information and Communication Technology in EducationMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 2)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐂𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Students will be able to explain the role and impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. They will understand how ICT tools, such as computers, the internet, and educational software, enhance learning and teaching processes. By exploring various ICT applications, students will recognize how these technologies facilitate access to information, improve communication, support collaboration, and enable personalized learning experiences.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭:
-Students will be able to discuss what constitutes reliable sources on the internet. They will learn to identify key characteristics of trustworthy information, such as credibility, accuracy, and authority. By examining different types of online sources, students will develop skills to evaluate the reliability of websites and content, ensuring they can distinguish between reputable information and misinformation.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
2. Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri
Italian priest and mathematician
Born at Milan in 1598,
died at Bologna on November 27, 1647.
He became a Jesuit at an early age;
on the recommendation of the Order he was in 1629 made professor of
mathematics at Bologna; and he continued to occupy the chair there until
his death. I have already mentioned Cavalieri's name in connection with the
introduction of the use of logarithms into Italy, and have alluded to his
discovery of the expression for the area of a spherical triangle in terms of
the spherical excess.
He was one of the most influential mathematicians of his time, but his
subsequent reputation rests mainly on his invention of the principle of
indivisibles.
3. Born Francesco Cavalieri in Milan, he took the name of his
father, Bonaventura, when he entered the Congregation of
Hieronymites or Jesuati (not Jesuit) order when he was
thirteen. The order was established in 1367 to care for and
bury the victims of the Black Death, the plague that killed
more than one-fourth of Europe’s population.
He received minor orders in 1615, and the next year he was
transferred to the Jesuiti monastery at Pisa. There he studied
philosophy and theology and was introduced to geometry, to
which he devoted the rest of his life. He quickly absorbed the
works of Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius and Pappas.
Cavalieri became an accomplished mathematician and one of
the most illustrious disciples of Galileo.
4. He was one of the most influential mathematicians of his
time, but his subsequent reputation rests mainly on his
invention of the principle of indivisibles.
Indivisibles are difficult to explain precisely. We can
think of them as in some sense the things from which
continuous substances are constructed. A point was the
“indivisible” of a line, that is, Cavalieri considered a line
to be composed of an infinite number of points. A plane
is composed of an infinite number of indivisibles, namely
lines, and squares of plane circles were the “indivisibles”
of a pyramid, cone, etc.
5. In Cavalieri’s treatment, a moving point
generated a line; a moving line generated a surface; and a
moving surface generated a solid. Cavalieri was not the
first person to consider geometric figures in terms of the
infinitesimal. It had already been incorporated into
medieval scholastic philosophy. Cavalieri was not the
first to use such a concept in computing areas and
volumes, but he was the first one who published a work
on the concept. His work provided a deeper notion of
sets, namely that it isn’t necessary to assign elements to a
set; it is enough that there exists some precise criterion
for determining if an element does or does not belong to
a set.
6. Directorium generale
uranometricum (A General Directory of Uranometry, 1632).
first to recognize and popularize the value of logarithms in his Directorium generale
uranometricum (A General Directory of Uranometry, 1632).
7. Uranometry is the science of the
measurement of the positions, magnitudes, , etc.
of the stars. The tables of logarithms that he
published included logarithms of trigonometric
functions for use by astronomers. However, his
greatest
was his principle of indivisibles – a procedure that
further developed Archimedes’ method of
exhaustion, although Cavalieri would not be
aware of Archimedes’ work. Cavalieri announced
the principle in 1629, but it did not appear in
print until six years later in his treatise
Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum.
8. Cavalieri's first book was Lo Specchio Ustorio, overo,
Trattato delle settioni coniche, or The Burning
Mirror, or a Treatise on Conic Sections.[3] In this
book he developed the theory of mirrors shaped
into parabolas, hyperbolas, and ellipses, and various
combinations of these mirrors. The work was purely
theoretical since the needed mirrors could not be
constructed with the technologies of the time, a
limitation well understood by Cavalieri.[4]
9. . One example will suffice. Suppose it be required to find the area of a right-angled
triangle. Let the base be made up of, or contain n points (or indivisibles), and similarly let
the other side contain na points, then the ordinates at the successive points of the base
will contain a, 2a ..., na points. Therefore the number of points in the area is a + 2a + ...
+ na; the sum of which is ½ n²a + ½na. Since n is very large, we may neglect ½na for it is
inconsiderable compared with ½n²a. Hence the area is equal to ½(na)n, that is, ½ ×
altitude × base. There is no difficulty in criticizing such a proof, but, although the form in
which it is presented is indefensible, the substance of it is correct.
It would be misleading to give the above as the only specimen of the method of
indivisibles, and I therefore quote another example, taken from a later writer, which will
fairly illustrate the use of the method when modified and corrected by the method of
10. Let it be required to find the area outside a parabola APC and
bounded by the curve, the tangent at A, and a line DC parallel
to AB the diameter at A. Complete the parallelogram ABCD.
Divide AD into nequal parts, let AM contain r of them, and
let MN be the (r + 1)th part. Draw MP and NQ parallel to AB, and
draw PR parallel to AD. Then when n becomes indefinitely large,
the curvilinear area APCD will be the the limit of the sum of all
parallelograms like PN.
Now
area PN : area BD = MP.MN : DC.AD.
But by the properties of the parabola
MP : DC = AM² : AD² = r² : n²,
and MN : AD = 1 : n. Hence MP.MN : DC.AD = r² : n³. Therefore
area PN : area BD = r² : n³.
Therefore, ultimately,
area APCD : area BD
= 1² + 2² + ... + (n-1)² : n³
= n (n-1)(2n-1) : n³
which, in the limit, = 1 : 3.
11. Cavalieri’s mathematics -
Integral Calculus
Here is an example of its use.Think about a circle and cutting it up into a large
number of segments which are then stuck down as shown (top to tail):
The shape on the right is ‘almost’ a rectangle and the more segments that are
taken, the closer it will be to a rectangle.
The areas of the circle and the rectangle are the same - they comprise the same
parts. But the length of the rectangle is half the circumference of the circle; the
height of the rectangle is just the radius of the circle. So the area of the circle is
given by the area of the rectangle,
A=(21 2λr).r=λr2
12. It is perhaps worth noticing that Cavalieri and his
successors always used the method to find the ratio of
two areas, volumes, or magnitudes of the same kind and
dimensions, that is, they never thought of an area as
containing so many units of area. The idea of comparing
a magnitude with a unit of the same kind seems to have
been due to Wallis.
It is evident that in its direct form the method is
applicable to only a few curves. Cavalieri proved that,
if m be a positive integer, then the limit, when n is
infinite, of is 1/(m+1), which is equivalent to saying
that he found the integral of x to from x = 0 to x = 1; he
also discussed the quadrature of the hyperbola.
13. Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum.
Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam
ratione promota (Geometry, developed by a new method
through the indivisibles of the continua, 1635). In this
work, an area is considered as constituted by an indefinite
number of parallel segments and a volume as constituted
by an indefinite number of parallel planar areas. Such
elements are called indivisibles respectively of area and
volume and provide the building blocks of Cavalieri's
method. As an application, he computed the areas under
the curves – an early integral – which is known
as Cavalieri's quadrature formula.
14. His theory was spurred by Kepler’s Stereometria and
by the encouragement of Galileo. The main
advantage of the method of indivisibles was that it
was more systematic than the method of exhaustion.
In effect, Cavalieri found a result equivalent to
evaluating the integral:
a
∫ xndx as an + 1/(n + 1)
0
15. Kepler’s Stereometria
Kepler's Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum
Kepler reported his results on wine barrels in his 1615 book, Nova
stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New solid geometry of wine
barrels). The word Stereometria is from the Ancient
Greek stereos that means solid or three-dimensional
and metron that means a measure or to measure. Stereometria then
means the art of measuring volumes, or solid
geometry. Doliometry is an old-fashioned word from the
Latin dolium that means a large jar or barrel.
This book is a systematic work on the calculation of areas and
volumes by infinitesimal techniques. Building on the results of
Archimedes, it focuses on solids of revolution and includes
calculations of exact or approximate volumes of over ninety such
solids (Edwards, p. 102). Today we use integral calculus to solve
these kinds of problems.
16. Cavalieri’s method of indivisibles forms a crude type of
integral calculus in which an area is thought of as
consisting of lines and that a solid’s volume can be
regarded as composed of areas that are indivisible. With
his theory he was able to solve many problems connected
with the quadrature of curves and surfaces, finding of
volumes, and locating centers of mass, all of which were
superseded at cone has 1/3 the volume of the prism or
cylinder of equal base and height. He didn’t actually find
the area of a figure or the volume of a solid as being so
many “square units” or “cubic units;” instead he
determined the ratio between the required area or
volume with that of some other easily calculated area or
volume.
17. Cavalieri did not rigorously develop his theory
of indivisibles, but he did not view this as an
important defect. He was intent on finding some
relatively simple practical method for finding areas
and volumes. He was not concerned with the Zeno’s
puzzling paradoxes.
18. This is usually put in the context of a race between Achilles
(the legendary Greek warrior) and the Tortoise. Achilles gives
the Tortoise a head start of, say 10 m, since he runs at 10 ms-
1 and the Tortoise moves at only 1 ms-1. Then by the time
Achilles has reached the point where the Tortoise started (T0 =
10 m), the slow but steady individual will have moved on 1 m to
T1 = 11 m. When Achilles reaches T1, the labouring Tortoise will
have moved on 0.1 m (to T2 = 11.1 m). When Achilles reaches
T2, the Tortoise will still be ahead by 0.01 m, and so on. Each
time Achilles reaches the point where the Tortoise was, the
cunning reptile will always have moved a little way ahead.
The paradoxes of the
philosopher Zeno, born
approximately 490 BC in
southern Italy, have
puzzled mathematicians,
scientists and philosophers
for millennia. Although
none of his work survives
today, over 40 paradoxes
are attributed to him which
appeared in a book he
wrote as a defense of the
philosophies of his teacher
Parmenides. Parmenides
believed in monism, that
reality was a single,
constant, unchanging thing
that he called 'Being'. In
defending this radical
belief, Zeno fashioned 40
arguments to show that
change (motion) and
plurality are impossible.
19. haunted inquiries into infinite processes.
He and other mathematicians of the period ignored the
logical imperfections in his use of infinitesimal
quantities. They developed methods whereby whenever a
quantity changed in value according to some continuous
law, as most things in nature seemed to do, the rate of
increase or decrease in such a change was measurable.
Later, when these logical imperfections were removed,
mathematicians developed infinitesimal calculus,
enabling scientists to pry loose the secrets of nature that
for so long had been a closed book.
21. , physicist and mathematician, was born on 13 August 1819 in Skreen, County
Sligo, Ireland. He was the youngest of eight children born to the rector of Skreen,
Gabriel Stokes (1762–1834), and Elizabeth Haughton, the daughter of John
Haugton, the rector of Kilrea, County Londonderry.
was an Irish mathematician and physicist who made many important
contributions to fluid dynamics, optics, and mathematical physics. Together
with James Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin, he was a major contributor to the
fame of the Cambridge school of mathematical physics during the mid-
nineteenth century.
Stoles exerted unusual influence beyond his direct students through extending
assistance in understanding and applying mathematics to any member of the
university. He served in many administrative positions, including for many years
as secretary of the Royal Society. He held strong religious convictions and
published a volume on Natural Theology.
22. George Gabriel Stokes was the youngest of eight children of the
Reverend Gabriel Stokes, rector of Skreen, County Sligo, and
Elizabeth Haughton. Stokes was raised in an evangelical Protestant
home.
Stokes was first tutored by a church clerk, but at the age of 13 was
sent to a school in Dublin for a more formal course of education.
Stokes's father died in 1834, but his mother secured the financing to
send him to Bristol College. His mathematics teacher there was
Francis Newman, the brother of Cardinal Newman.
In 1837, Stokes transferred as an undergraduate to Pembroke
College at the University of Cambridge, where his brother William,
breaking with the family tradition of attending Trinity, had studied.
On graduating as "senior wrangler" and first Smith's prizeman in
1841, Stokes was elected to a fellowship at the college.
23. THE MOTION OF LIGHT
In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations, named after Claude-Louis
Navier and George Gabriel Stokes, describe the motion of fluid substances. These
equations arise from applying Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the
assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of adiffusing viscous term
(proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term - hence describing viscous
flow.
The equations are useful because they describe the physics of many things of academic
and economic interest. They may be used to model theweather, ocean currents,
water flow in a pipe and air flow around a wing. The Navier–Stokes equations in their
full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and cars, the study of blood
flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of pollution, and many other things.
Coupled withMaxwell's equations they can be used to model and
study magnetohydrodynamics.
24. Properties of light
Perhaps his best-known researches
are those that deal with the wave
theory of light. His optical work
began at an early period in his
scientific career. His first papers
on the aberration of light
appeared in 1845 and 1846, and
were followed in 1848 by one on
the theory of certain bands seen
in the spectrum. In 1849, he
published a long paper on the
dynamical theory of diffraction,
in which he showed that the
plane of polarization must be
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
25. Fluorescence
In the early 1850s, Stokes
began experimenting with filtered
light. He passed sunlight through a
blue-tinted glass, and then shone
the beam through a solution of
quinone, which has a yellow color.
When the blue light reached the
quinone solution, it produced a
strong yellow illumination. Stokes
tried the same experiment with the
solutions of different compounds,
but found that only some showed
an illumination of a color different
from that of the original light
beam. Stokes named this
effect fluorescence.
The phenomenon of fluorescence was
known by the middle of the
nineteenth century. British scientist
Sir George G. Stokes first made the
observation that the
mineral fluorspar exhibits
fluorescence when illuminated with
ultraviolet light, and he coined the
word "fluorescence". Stokes observed
that the fluorescing light has longer
wavelengths than the excitation light,
a phenomenon that has become to be
known as the Stokes shift. In Figure
1, a photon of ultraviolet radiation
(purple) collides with an electron in a
simple atom, exciting and elevating
the electron to a higher energy level.
Subsequently, the excited electron
relaxes to a lower level and emits light
in the form of a lower-energy photon
(red) in the visible light region.
26. SPECTROSCOPY
Spectroscopy /spɛkˈtrɒskəpi/ is the
study of the interaction
between matter and radiated
energy.Historically, spectroscopy
originated through the study of visible
light dispersed according to
its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later
the concept was expanded greatly to
comprise any interaction with radiative
energy as a function of its wavelength
or frequency. Spectroscopic data is
often represented by a spectrum, a plot
of the response of interest as a function
An excellent example is his work in the theory of
spectroscopy. In his presidential address to the
British Association in 1871, Lord Kelvin (Sir
William Thomson, as he was known then) stated
his belief that the application of the prismatic
analysis of light to solar and stellar chemistry had
never been suggested directly or indirectly by
anyone else when Stokes taught it to him in
Cambridge some time prior to the summer of
1852, and he set forth the conclusions,
theoretical and practical, which he had learned
from Stokes at that time, and which he
afterwards gave regularly in his public lectures at
Glasgow.
These statements, containing as they do the
physical basis on which spectroscopy rests,
and the way in which it is applicable to the
identification of substances existing in
the Sun and stars, make it appear that
Stokes anticipated Kirchhoff by at least seven
or eight years.