This document provides an overview of materials properties and structures. It discusses key properties like strength, toughness, hardness, brittleness, malleability, ductility, creep and fatigue. It also describes different crystal structures including simple cubic, body centered cubic, face centered cubic and hexagonal closed packed. It defines terms like unit cell, space lattice, atomic radius, atomic packing factor, coordination number, Bravais lattice, crystallographic planes and Miller indices for describing material structures.
Introduction to Mechanical Metallurgy (Our course project)Rishabh Gupta
The document summarizes key concepts in materials science and engineering. It discusses:
1. The importance of selecting high quality materials for better product design and performance.
2. The four main components in materials science - processing, structure, properties, and performance - and how they interrelate.
3. The main classes of materials - metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, and elastomers - and some of their key characteristics.
4. Crystal structures of metals and how they are classified based on atomic packing efficiency. Factors that determine a material's density are also covered.
It describes how different properties of materials changes when reduced to nano. Property includes electrical, optical, mechanical, magnetic, thermal etc.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key terms related to materials science and engineering. It covers topics such as the different classes of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers, composites), crystal structures, solidification processes, crystalline imperfections, diffusion, and mechanical properties. The document is organized by chapter and section to provide context for the terminology.
Ch-27.1 Basic concepts on structure of solids.pptxksysbaysyag
The document discusses various topics related to materials science including:
1. Common crystal structures of metals such as FCC, BCC, and HCP and how some metals can change structure with temperature.
2. Plastic deformation in metals occurs through slip and twinning which involve the movement of atoms along crystallographic planes.
3. Atomic structure consists of electrons surrounding the nucleus in shells and the number of valence electrons influence material properties and bonding.
4. Primary bonding types are ionic, covalent, and metallic which influence properties like strength, conductivity, and deformation behavior.
Biomaterials and biosciences biometals.pptxKoustavGhosh26
This document provides an introduction to materials, including:
1. It discusses the evolution of materials from the Stone Age to today's Silicon Age and how materials drive modern society.
2. It explains that materials science studies the relationship between structure and properties of materials, while materials engineering designs materials for specific properties and applications.
3. It briefly introduces common materials like metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites, describing their basic structures and properties.
Lecture on Introduction of Semiconductor at North South University as the undergraduate course (ETE411)
=======================
Dr. Mashiur Rahman
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
http://mashiur.biggani.org
Unit-I BASICS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS.pptBHARATNIKKAM
The document discusses various topics related to engineering materials including their classification, structure, microstructure, sample preparation techniques, and properties. It defines materials and material science. Materials are classified as metals and alloys, non-metals, and composite materials. Metals have crystalline structures such as body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed. Microstructure is studied using various types of microscopes. Sample preparation involves cutting, mounting, polishing, and etching specimens. Key properties of metals discussed are physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, and chemical.
Introduction to Mechanical Metallurgy (Our course project)Rishabh Gupta
The document summarizes key concepts in materials science and engineering. It discusses:
1. The importance of selecting high quality materials for better product design and performance.
2. The four main components in materials science - processing, structure, properties, and performance - and how they interrelate.
3. The main classes of materials - metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, and elastomers - and some of their key characteristics.
4. Crystal structures of metals and how they are classified based on atomic packing efficiency. Factors that determine a material's density are also covered.
It describes how different properties of materials changes when reduced to nano. Property includes electrical, optical, mechanical, magnetic, thermal etc.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key terms related to materials science and engineering. It covers topics such as the different classes of materials (metals, ceramics, polymers, composites), crystal structures, solidification processes, crystalline imperfections, diffusion, and mechanical properties. The document is organized by chapter and section to provide context for the terminology.
Ch-27.1 Basic concepts on structure of solids.pptxksysbaysyag
The document discusses various topics related to materials science including:
1. Common crystal structures of metals such as FCC, BCC, and HCP and how some metals can change structure with temperature.
2. Plastic deformation in metals occurs through slip and twinning which involve the movement of atoms along crystallographic planes.
3. Atomic structure consists of electrons surrounding the nucleus in shells and the number of valence electrons influence material properties and bonding.
4. Primary bonding types are ionic, covalent, and metallic which influence properties like strength, conductivity, and deformation behavior.
Biomaterials and biosciences biometals.pptxKoustavGhosh26
This document provides an introduction to materials, including:
1. It discusses the evolution of materials from the Stone Age to today's Silicon Age and how materials drive modern society.
2. It explains that materials science studies the relationship between structure and properties of materials, while materials engineering designs materials for specific properties and applications.
3. It briefly introduces common materials like metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites, describing their basic structures and properties.
Lecture on Introduction of Semiconductor at North South University as the undergraduate course (ETE411)
=======================
Dr. Mashiur Rahman
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
http://mashiur.biggani.org
Unit-I BASICS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS.pptBHARATNIKKAM
The document discusses various topics related to engineering materials including their classification, structure, microstructure, sample preparation techniques, and properties. It defines materials and material science. Materials are classified as metals and alloys, non-metals, and composite materials. Metals have crystalline structures such as body centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close packed. Microstructure is studied using various types of microscopes. Sample preparation involves cutting, mounting, polishing, and etching specimens. Key properties of metals discussed are physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, and chemical.
Solids are rigid substances that have a definite shape and volume. In solids, atoms, ions, and molecules are held tightly together by strong bonds, causing solids to lack the ability to flow. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids have a regular repeating pattern of atoms and sharp melting points, while amorphous solids lack this organized structure. The positions of particles in a crystalline solid form a crystal lattice defined by a repeating unit cell. Methods like X-ray crystallography use the diffraction pattern of X-rays hitting the crystal structure to determine atomic positions.
This document discusses the atomic arrangement and properties of crystalline solids such as metals. It begins by describing the long-range order in crystalline solids compared to the short-range order in amorphous solids. It then discusses various crystal structures including cubic, hexagonal, and body-centered cubic. It provides examples of calculating properties like atomic packing factor and theoretical density based on crystal structure. Finally, it discusses using X-ray diffraction to determine crystal structure by measuring spacing between crystal planes.
This document discusses the structure of crystalline solids. It introduces common crystal structures like face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. These crystal structures are composed of repeating patterns of unit cells that pack atoms in the most efficient ways possible. The document also discusses properties of crystalline solids like density and anisotropy, as well as different types of solid materials like single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids which lack long-range crystalline order. Key concepts covered include crystal structures, unit cells, packing efficiency, and the differences between crystalline and non-crystalline solids.
The document outlines the syllabus for a semiconductor subject. It includes 15 chapters that cover topics like crystal structure of solids, quantum mechanics, equilibrium carrier transport, pn junctions, bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, and optical and power devices. It also provides details on some key concepts for semiconductors like electrical conductivity and resistivity. Examples are given for different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic lattices. Miller indices are introduced for representing crystal planes.
Crystal structures determine material properties. Common structures are FCC, BCC, and HCP. FCC materials like copper are soft while BCC like tungsten are hard. HCP materials include magnesium and zinc. Cobalt and chromium can transform between structures with temperature changes. Grain boundaries in materials are weak points that chemicals can attack. Plastic deformation occurs through slip and twinning along crystal planes. Ductile fracture follows plastic deformation while brittle fracture precedes it.
This document contains information about crystal structures, including:
- Unit cells can be primitive or non-primitive, with primitive cells containing one lattice point and non-primitive cells containing additional points.
- Crystal structures are defined by their lattice type, lattice parameters, and motif. Lattice types define lattice point locations and parameters define unit cell size and shape.
- Miller indices describe plane orientations in a lattice relative to the unit cell. They allow accurate definition of planes and quantitative analysis in materials science.
- Exercises are provided on identifying Miller indices of planes in different crystal structures.
This document discusses different states of matter and properties of liquids and solids. It defines key terms like phases, intermolecular forces, and boiling point. It describes different types of solids like ionic, molecular, metallic and network solids. It also discusses properties of liquids like surface tension, capillary action, and viscosity.
This document is the first unit of a course on the structure, arrangements, and movements of atoms taught by Dr. Edgar García Hernández. The unit introduces materials science and engineering concepts. It discusses atomic structure, crystalline arrangements of metals and ceramics, imperfections in crystals like point defects and dislocations, and atomic movements in solids under mechanical treatments. The unit provides information on crystal structures, unit cells, coordination numbers, and calculating material properties based on structure.
1. The document provides an overview of concepts relevant to nanochemistry including the periodic table, atomic structure, size of atoms, molecules and phases, types of chemical bonds, quantum mechanics principles, and solid-state band theory.
2. Key topics covered include the periodic arrangement of elements, subatomic particles that make up atoms, sizes of atoms ranging from 0.1-0.5 nanometers, different states of matter, various types of chemical bonds between atoms, the four quantum numbers that describe electrons, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and how materials behave as semiconductors, conductors or insulators depending on their band structure.
3. The document also defines nano as a prefix meaning one billion
The document discusses various topics relating to material properties and crystal structure:
- Crystal structure determines material properties and is the arrangement of atoms in the material. The smallest repeating unit that can generate the crystal structure is called the unit cell.
- Metallic crystals have densely packed structures due to small atomic radii and non-directional metallic bonding. Common unit cell structures are simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic.
- Mechanical properties like stress, strain, elastic moduli, ductility, and toughness are influenced by the crystal structure and affect how the material responds to forces. The stress-strain curve provides information on a material's elastic and plastic deformation.
- Other topics covered
Lecture on Introduction of Semiconductor at North South University as the undergraduate course (ETE411)
=======================
Dr. Mashiur Rahman
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
http://mashiur.biggani.org
Structural and vibration analysis of delaminated composite beamsijceronline
This document discusses structural and vibration analysis of composite beams with delaminations. It presents results from finite element analysis in ANSYS to analyze the effects of delamination length on stresses and natural frequencies of composite beams made from carbon fiber, Kevlar, and flouro polymer. The analyses were conducted on simply supported beams with single-edge delaminations of lengths 381mm and 400mm using solid elements and shell elements with 5 layers. The results show that increasing delamination length increases displacement, stress, and decreases natural frequencies, indicating composite materials are more likely to fail at higher delamination lengths.
1. The chapter discusses different types of solids based on their structure and properties - crystalline, amorphous, and polymeric solids.
2. Crystalline solids like metals and semiconductors have a regular arrangement of atoms and show phenomena like X-ray diffraction.
3. Mechanical properties refer to how solids deform under stress, which can be elastic or plastic deformation described by concepts like stress, strain, Hooke's law, and stress-strain curves.
Em321 lesson 08b solutions ch6 - mechanical properties of metalsusna12345
This document discusses mechanical properties that can be determined from a stress-strain curve obtained via tensile testing. It defines stress and strain, explains elastic and plastic deformation, and introduces key properties like modulus of elasticity, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, toughness, and resilience. An example stress-strain curve is analyzed to find these properties numerically. The document emphasizes that stress-strain curves are commonly used instead of force-displacement plots to characterize materials.
The document discusses atomic structure and how it relates to the properties and applications of engineering materials. It explains that atomic structure determines bonding types, which then affect material properties like strength, conductivity, and ductility. The document discusses different bonding structures like metallic, ionic, and covalent bonding, and how they influence material properties. It then gives examples of materials that exhibit different bonding types and properties.
The document discusses the crystal structures of materials. It begins by explaining that the properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures. For example, magnesium and beryllium have different properties than gold and silver due to differences in their crystal structures. It then lists the key learning objectives which include describing different crystal structures, computing densities, and distinguishing between single crystals and polycrystalline materials. The document goes on to explain common metallic crystal structures like body centered cubic and face centered cubic, as well as non-metallic structures like rock salt and cesium chloride. It also discusses factors that determine crystal structure such as the relative sizes of ions to maximize interactions and maintain charge neutrality.
When a ductile material with a crack is loaded in
tension, the deformation energy builds up around the crack tip
and it is understood that at a certain critical condition voids are
formed ahead of the crack tip. The crack extension occurs by
coalescence of voids with the crack tip. The “characteristic
distance” (Lc) defined as the distance b/w the crack tip & the void
responsible for eventual coalescence with the crack tip. Nucleation
of these voids is generally associated with the presence of second
phase particles or grain boundaries in the vicinity of the crack tip.
Although approximate, Lc assumes a special significance since it
links the fracture toughness to the microscopic mechanism
considered responsible for ductile fracture. The knowledge of the
“characteristic distance” is also crucial for designing the size of
mesh in the finite element simulations of material crack growth
using damage mechanics principles. There is not much work
(experimental as well as numerical) available in the literature
related to the dependency of “characteristic distance” on the
fracture specimen geometry. The present research work is an
attempt to understand numerically, the geometry dependency of
“characteristic distance” using three-dimensional FEM analysis.
The variation of “characteristic distance” parameter due to the
change of temperature across the fracture specimen thickness was
also studied. The work also studied the variation of “characteristic
distance”, due to the change in fracture specimen thickness.
Finally, the ASTM requirement of fracture specimen thickness
criteria is evaluated for the “characteristic distance” fracture
parameter. “Characteristic distance” is found to vary across the
fracture specimen thickness. It is dependent on fracture specimen
thickness and it converges after a specified thickness of fracture
specimen. “Characteristic distance” value is also dependent on the
temperature of ductile material. In Armco iron material, it is
found to decrease with the increase in temperature.
The document discusses crystal structure and defects. It begins by classifying materials as amorphous, polycrystalline, or crystalline based on their atomic structure. Crystalline materials have an orderly array of atoms described by a lattice and basis. Common crystal structures include simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic. Defects in the crystal structure are also discussed, including point defects like vacancies and interstitials, and line defects like dislocations. Miller indices are used to describe planes and directions in crystal structures.
This document provides an introduction to strength of materials (SOM). It defines key terms like strength, stiffness, stability, and durability. It discusses the basic problem in SOM as developing methods to design structural elements that consider strength, stiffness, stability, and economy. It also outlines the main hypotheses in SOM, including the material being continuous, homogeneous, and isotropic. It then discusses different types of stresses like tensile, compressive, and shear stresses. It provides stress-strain curves for ductile materials and defines modulus of elasticity. Examples of calculating stresses and strains in structural elements are also provided.
Solids are rigid substances that have a definite shape and volume. In solids, atoms, ions, and molecules are held tightly together by strong bonds, causing solids to lack the ability to flow. There are two main types of solids - crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids have a regular repeating pattern of atoms and sharp melting points, while amorphous solids lack this organized structure. The positions of particles in a crystalline solid form a crystal lattice defined by a repeating unit cell. Methods like X-ray crystallography use the diffraction pattern of X-rays hitting the crystal structure to determine atomic positions.
This document discusses the atomic arrangement and properties of crystalline solids such as metals. It begins by describing the long-range order in crystalline solids compared to the short-range order in amorphous solids. It then discusses various crystal structures including cubic, hexagonal, and body-centered cubic. It provides examples of calculating properties like atomic packing factor and theoretical density based on crystal structure. Finally, it discusses using X-ray diffraction to determine crystal structure by measuring spacing between crystal planes.
This document discusses the structure of crystalline solids. It introduces common crystal structures like face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. These crystal structures are composed of repeating patterns of unit cells that pack atoms in the most efficient ways possible. The document also discusses properties of crystalline solids like density and anisotropy, as well as different types of solid materials like single crystals, polycrystals, and amorphous solids which lack long-range crystalline order. Key concepts covered include crystal structures, unit cells, packing efficiency, and the differences between crystalline and non-crystalline solids.
The document outlines the syllabus for a semiconductor subject. It includes 15 chapters that cover topics like crystal structure of solids, quantum mechanics, equilibrium carrier transport, pn junctions, bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, and optical and power devices. It also provides details on some key concepts for semiconductors like electrical conductivity and resistivity. Examples are given for different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic lattices. Miller indices are introduced for representing crystal planes.
Crystal structures determine material properties. Common structures are FCC, BCC, and HCP. FCC materials like copper are soft while BCC like tungsten are hard. HCP materials include magnesium and zinc. Cobalt and chromium can transform between structures with temperature changes. Grain boundaries in materials are weak points that chemicals can attack. Plastic deformation occurs through slip and twinning along crystal planes. Ductile fracture follows plastic deformation while brittle fracture precedes it.
This document contains information about crystal structures, including:
- Unit cells can be primitive or non-primitive, with primitive cells containing one lattice point and non-primitive cells containing additional points.
- Crystal structures are defined by their lattice type, lattice parameters, and motif. Lattice types define lattice point locations and parameters define unit cell size and shape.
- Miller indices describe plane orientations in a lattice relative to the unit cell. They allow accurate definition of planes and quantitative analysis in materials science.
- Exercises are provided on identifying Miller indices of planes in different crystal structures.
This document discusses different states of matter and properties of liquids and solids. It defines key terms like phases, intermolecular forces, and boiling point. It describes different types of solids like ionic, molecular, metallic and network solids. It also discusses properties of liquids like surface tension, capillary action, and viscosity.
This document is the first unit of a course on the structure, arrangements, and movements of atoms taught by Dr. Edgar García Hernández. The unit introduces materials science and engineering concepts. It discusses atomic structure, crystalline arrangements of metals and ceramics, imperfections in crystals like point defects and dislocations, and atomic movements in solids under mechanical treatments. The unit provides information on crystal structures, unit cells, coordination numbers, and calculating material properties based on structure.
1. The document provides an overview of concepts relevant to nanochemistry including the periodic table, atomic structure, size of atoms, molecules and phases, types of chemical bonds, quantum mechanics principles, and solid-state band theory.
2. Key topics covered include the periodic arrangement of elements, subatomic particles that make up atoms, sizes of atoms ranging from 0.1-0.5 nanometers, different states of matter, various types of chemical bonds between atoms, the four quantum numbers that describe electrons, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and how materials behave as semiconductors, conductors or insulators depending on their band structure.
3. The document also defines nano as a prefix meaning one billion
The document discusses various topics relating to material properties and crystal structure:
- Crystal structure determines material properties and is the arrangement of atoms in the material. The smallest repeating unit that can generate the crystal structure is called the unit cell.
- Metallic crystals have densely packed structures due to small atomic radii and non-directional metallic bonding. Common unit cell structures are simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic.
- Mechanical properties like stress, strain, elastic moduli, ductility, and toughness are influenced by the crystal structure and affect how the material responds to forces. The stress-strain curve provides information on a material's elastic and plastic deformation.
- Other topics covered
Lecture on Introduction of Semiconductor at North South University as the undergraduate course (ETE411)
=======================
Dr. Mashiur Rahman
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
http://mashiur.biggani.org
Structural and vibration analysis of delaminated composite beamsijceronline
This document discusses structural and vibration analysis of composite beams with delaminations. It presents results from finite element analysis in ANSYS to analyze the effects of delamination length on stresses and natural frequencies of composite beams made from carbon fiber, Kevlar, and flouro polymer. The analyses were conducted on simply supported beams with single-edge delaminations of lengths 381mm and 400mm using solid elements and shell elements with 5 layers. The results show that increasing delamination length increases displacement, stress, and decreases natural frequencies, indicating composite materials are more likely to fail at higher delamination lengths.
1. The chapter discusses different types of solids based on their structure and properties - crystalline, amorphous, and polymeric solids.
2. Crystalline solids like metals and semiconductors have a regular arrangement of atoms and show phenomena like X-ray diffraction.
3. Mechanical properties refer to how solids deform under stress, which can be elastic or plastic deformation described by concepts like stress, strain, Hooke's law, and stress-strain curves.
Em321 lesson 08b solutions ch6 - mechanical properties of metalsusna12345
This document discusses mechanical properties that can be determined from a stress-strain curve obtained via tensile testing. It defines stress and strain, explains elastic and plastic deformation, and introduces key properties like modulus of elasticity, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility, toughness, and resilience. An example stress-strain curve is analyzed to find these properties numerically. The document emphasizes that stress-strain curves are commonly used instead of force-displacement plots to characterize materials.
The document discusses atomic structure and how it relates to the properties and applications of engineering materials. It explains that atomic structure determines bonding types, which then affect material properties like strength, conductivity, and ductility. The document discusses different bonding structures like metallic, ionic, and covalent bonding, and how they influence material properties. It then gives examples of materials that exhibit different bonding types and properties.
The document discusses the crystal structures of materials. It begins by explaining that the properties of some materials are directly related to their crystal structures. For example, magnesium and beryllium have different properties than gold and silver due to differences in their crystal structures. It then lists the key learning objectives which include describing different crystal structures, computing densities, and distinguishing between single crystals and polycrystalline materials. The document goes on to explain common metallic crystal structures like body centered cubic and face centered cubic, as well as non-metallic structures like rock salt and cesium chloride. It also discusses factors that determine crystal structure such as the relative sizes of ions to maximize interactions and maintain charge neutrality.
When a ductile material with a crack is loaded in
tension, the deformation energy builds up around the crack tip
and it is understood that at a certain critical condition voids are
formed ahead of the crack tip. The crack extension occurs by
coalescence of voids with the crack tip. The “characteristic
distance” (Lc) defined as the distance b/w the crack tip & the void
responsible for eventual coalescence with the crack tip. Nucleation
of these voids is generally associated with the presence of second
phase particles or grain boundaries in the vicinity of the crack tip.
Although approximate, Lc assumes a special significance since it
links the fracture toughness to the microscopic mechanism
considered responsible for ductile fracture. The knowledge of the
“characteristic distance” is also crucial for designing the size of
mesh in the finite element simulations of material crack growth
using damage mechanics principles. There is not much work
(experimental as well as numerical) available in the literature
related to the dependency of “characteristic distance” on the
fracture specimen geometry. The present research work is an
attempt to understand numerically, the geometry dependency of
“characteristic distance” using three-dimensional FEM analysis.
The variation of “characteristic distance” parameter due to the
change of temperature across the fracture specimen thickness was
also studied. The work also studied the variation of “characteristic
distance”, due to the change in fracture specimen thickness.
Finally, the ASTM requirement of fracture specimen thickness
criteria is evaluated for the “characteristic distance” fracture
parameter. “Characteristic distance” is found to vary across the
fracture specimen thickness. It is dependent on fracture specimen
thickness and it converges after a specified thickness of fracture
specimen. “Characteristic distance” value is also dependent on the
temperature of ductile material. In Armco iron material, it is
found to decrease with the increase in temperature.
The document discusses crystal structure and defects. It begins by classifying materials as amorphous, polycrystalline, or crystalline based on their atomic structure. Crystalline materials have an orderly array of atoms described by a lattice and basis. Common crystal structures include simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face centered cubic. Defects in the crystal structure are also discussed, including point defects like vacancies and interstitials, and line defects like dislocations. Miller indices are used to describe planes and directions in crystal structures.
This document provides an introduction to strength of materials (SOM). It defines key terms like strength, stiffness, stability, and durability. It discusses the basic problem in SOM as developing methods to design structural elements that consider strength, stiffness, stability, and economy. It also outlines the main hypotheses in SOM, including the material being continuous, homogeneous, and isotropic. It then discusses different types of stresses like tensile, compressive, and shear stresses. It provides stress-strain curves for ductile materials and defines modulus of elasticity. Examples of calculating stresses and strains in structural elements are also provided.
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Material and Metallurgy Introduction
1. Unit 1: Properties, Structure of
Materials and Strengthening
Mechanism Part 1
FACULTY: PROF. Y. M. KHAN
Subject: Materials & Metallurgy
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, ICEEM, Aurangabad
2. What is Metallurgy?
It is the branch of science and technology concerned with the production,
purification and properties of metals.
3. What is a material?
The matter from which a thing is or can be made.
6. Properties of Materials
Strength
It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or
breakdown of material in presence of external forces or load.
Materials which we finalize for our engineering products, must have
suitable mechanical strength to be capable to work under different
mechanical forces or loads.
7. Toughness
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically
deformed without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the
amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3.
Value of toughness of a material can be determined by stress-strain
characteristics of a material. For good toughness, materials should have
good strength as well as ductility.
For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are
not tough enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but low
strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough, a material
should be capable to withstand both high stress and strain.
8. Hardness
It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to
external stress. There are various measure of hardness – Scratch
Hardness, Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness
Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it
is subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a
stress it observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant
strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of
material is temperature dependent. Some metals which are ductile at
normal temperature become brittle at low temperature.
9. Malleability
Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily
a material gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often
categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the form of a thin
sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of
plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent.
With rise in temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a
material gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized
by the ability of material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing.
This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is
temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of material
increases.
10. Creep
Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to
move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external
mechanical stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external
mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that
are subjected to heat for long time.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the
material. When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater
than certain threshold value but much below the strength of material (ultimate
tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks begin to form at
grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size.
This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of
structure affects the fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to
elevated stresses where the fatigue crack initiates.
11. Unit 1: Properties, Structure of
Materials and Strengthening
Mechanism Part 2
FACULTY: PROF. Y. M. KHAN
Subject: Materials & Metallurgy
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, ICEEM, Aurangabad
12. Structure of metals
Crystal Structure: A regular repetitious pattern in which atoms of a crystalline
material arrange themselves is know as crystal structure
Or
Crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or
molecules in a crystalline material.
13. Unit Cell
The block formed by arrangement of small group of atom is called as Unit Cell.
Or
It is the smallest repeating unit/pattern which lattice is built is called unit cell
14. Space Lattice
The regular arrangement of an infinite set of points(atom, ions, molecules) in a
three dimensional space is called as space lattice.
15. Types of Crystal Structure (metals)
1. Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
Corner
Atom
Rare due to poor packing (only Po has this structure)
16. Types of Crystal Structure (metals)
2. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
Corner
Atom
Examples of bcc include iron, chromium, tungsten, and niobium
Centre
Atom
17. Types of Crystal Structure (metals)
3. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
Corner
Atom
Examples of fcc include aluminium, copper, gold and silver.
Face
Atom
19. • 3D Projection
• 2D Projection
A sites
B sites
A sites
examples include beryllium, cadmium, magnesium, titanium, zinc and zirconium
20. Atomic Radius(r)
Atomic Radius is defined as half the distance between nearest neighbors in a
crystal of an element. It is possible to calculate the atomic radius by assuming
the atoms are sphere in a crystal structure & the lattice parameters are known.
Average number of atoms in Unit Cell(Nav)(N)
After knowing the arrangement of the atoms inside the unit cell, the number of
atoms per unit cell can be calculated by using formula
Nav =
𝑁𝑐
8
+
𝑁𝑓
2
+
𝑁𝑖
1
Nc- Total No. of Corner atoms
Nf- Total No. of Face atoms
Ni- Total No. of interior/center atoms
21. Atomic Packing Factor(APF)
In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF), packing efficiency or density
of packing or packing fraction is the fraction of volume that is occupied by
constituent particles(atom/ion/molecules) in a unit cell. It is a dimensionless
quantity and always less than unity. In atomic systems, by convention, the
APF is determined by assuming that atoms are rigid spheres.
APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝐴𝑣𝑔.𝑛𝑜.𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ∗𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
22. AR, APF for various structures
Corner
Atom
1. Atomic Radius(r)= a/2
2 . Nav=
𝑁𝑐
8
+
𝑁𝑓
2
+
𝑁𝑖
1
=
8
8
+
0
2
+
0
1
= 1
3. APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝐴𝑣𝑔.𝑛𝑜.𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ∗𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
1 ∗ 4
3π𝑟3
𝑎3 =
π
6
=0.52
Interatomic
Distance 1. Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
Ref: All figures are adapted from book of William D Callister
23. AR, APF for various structures
Corner
Atom
1. Atomic Radius(r)= 𝟑𝒂/𝟒
2. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
Centre
Atom
A
B C
D
E
F G
H
A
E G
C
r
2r
A
E
G F
E
G
4r
a
a
𝟐𝒂
a
1 2
From fig 1= AG= r+2r+r= 4r - 1
From fig 2= EG2 = a2 +a2 - 2
From fig 1= AG2= EG2 + AE2 = 3a2 - 3
From eqt 1, 2, 3 = AG2= (4r)2 = 3a2
Radius(r)= 𝟑𝒂/𝟒
25. AR, APF for various structures
Corner
Atom
1. Atomic Radius(r)= 𝟐𝒂/𝟒
2 . Nav=
𝑁𝑐
8
+
𝑁𝑓
2
+
𝑁𝑖
1
=
8
8
+
6
2
+
0
1
= 4
3. APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝐴𝑣𝑔.𝑛𝑜.𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ∗𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
1 ∗ 4
3π𝑟3
𝑎3 =
0.74
3. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
Ref: All figures are adapted from book of William D Callister
Face
Atom
26. AR, APF for various structures
1. Atomic Radius(r)=𝒂/𝟐
2 . Nav=
𝑁𝑐
6
+
𝑁𝑓
2
+
𝑁𝑖
1
Modified Formula
=
12
6
+
2
2
+
3
1
= 6
3. APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
=
𝐴𝑣𝑔.𝑛𝑜.𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ∗𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
= 0.74
4. Hexagonal Closed Pack(HCP)
Ref: All figures are adapted from book of William D Callister
27. Coordination Number
It is defined as the number of nearest(equidistant) atoms which are directly
surrounding a given atom. When its large the structure is said to be closely
packed.
1. Simple Cubic Structure (SC)= Coordination No= 6
SC 6
BCC 8
FCC 12
HCP 12
Coordination Number
29. Atoms in a crystallographic planes
The layers of atoms or the planes along which the atoms are arranged are
known as atomic or crystallographic planes or index of plane
30. Miller Indices
The orientation of plane in a lattice is indicated by the index of
plane.
Miller Indices are reciprocals of the fractional intercepts which the
plane makes with crystallographic axes.
The miller system for designating the crystallographic planes and
directions is universally accepted.
The procedure to find Miller Indices is as follows
31. Y
X
Z
r
q
p
c
a
b
1. Find out the intercept made by the plane on three
reference axes.
E.g. assume that these intercepts are p, q, r
Procedure to Find Miller Indices
2. Convert these intercepts to fractional
intercepts by dividing with their axial lengths, if
the axial lengths are a, b, c
then the fractional intercepts will be
𝑝
𝑎
,
𝑞
𝑏
,
𝑟
𝑐
3. Find out reciprocals of these fractional
intercepts
𝑎
𝑝
,
𝑏
𝑞
,
𝑐
𝑟
4. Convert these reciprocals to the whole number by common multiplication with a LCM.
Let us call these numbers as h, k, l.
Incidentally for a cubic system axial length is a=b=c so they become
1
𝑝
,
1
𝑞
,
1
𝑟
32. 5. Enclose these numbers in bracket (parenthesis) as (h k l).
These notations represents Miller Indices.
Y
X
Z
r
q
p
c
a
b
(h k l)
Note: If the plane passes through origin then shift the
origin to new position for finding index of plane.
33. Y
X
Z
1
1. The intercepts- ꚙ, 1, ꚙ
2. Fractional intercepts- ꚙ /1, 1/1, ꚙ /1
3. Reciprocal of fractional intercepts- 1/ ꚙ, 1/1, 1/ ꚙ
4. Convert to whole number – 0, 1, 0
5. Put in bracket- (0 1 0)
1. Find out the intercepts
2. Convert the intercepts to fractional intercepts
3. Reciprocal these fractional intercepts
4. Convert to whole number
5. Put in bracket
(0 1 0)
34. Y
X
Z
1
2/3
1/3
1. Find out the intercepts
2. Convert the intercepts to fractional intercepts
3. Reciprocal these fractional intercepts
4. Convert to whole number
5. Put in bracket
1. The intercepts- 1/3, 2/3, 1
2. Fractional intercepts-
1/3
1
,
2/3
1
,
1
1
3. Reciprocal of fractional intercepts- 3/1, 3/2, 1/1
4. Convert to whole number – 6, 3, 2
5. Put in bracket- (6 3 2)
35. Y
X
Z
Y
X
Z
-1
1
1. The intercepts- 1, -1, ꚙ
2. Fractional intercepts-
1
1
,
−1
1
,
ꚙ
1
3. Reciprocal of fractional intercepts- 1, -1, 0
4. Convert to whole number – 1, -1, 0
5. Put in bracket- (1 1 0)
36. Solidification: Definition of terms
1. System: Part of the universe under study is called ‘system’.
2. Phase: Phase is homogenous physically distinct and mechanically separable
part of the system under study.
3. Variable: A particular phase exist under various conditions of temperature,
pressure and concentration these parameters are called as ‘variables of the
phase’.
4. Components: The elements present in the system are called as components.
For example Cu-Al system contains ‘copper and aluminum’ as components.
5. Alloy: Alloy is a ‘mixture of two or more elements’ having metallic property.
The elements present in larger proportion is a metal and other can be metal
or nonmetal. The element with larger amount is called as ‘base metal’ or
‘parent metal’ or ‘solvent’ and the other elements are called ‘alloying
elements’ or ‘solute ‘.
37. 1. Solid solution: It is an alloy in which atoms of solute are distributed in the
solvent and has the same structure as that of solvent. Solid solutions have
different compositions with similar structures and are liquid solutions such as
sugar in water.
2. Substitutional & Interstitial Solid Solution
Substitutional solid solution: this solid solution means the atoms of B
element i. e. solute are substituted at the atomic site of A i. e. solvent.
38. Random/Disordered & Regular/Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution
In regular solid solution the substitution of B atoms in A element is
by definite order while there is no definite order or regularity in
random solid solution.
Regular Random
39. Interstitial Solid Solution
In Interstitial solid solutions the atoms of B (solute) occupy the
interstitial site of A(solvent) atoms. This type of solid solution
formation is favored when atomic size of B is very much small as
compared to A
40. Intermediate phase
In any alloy there is addition of alloying element into base metal.
During addition, of elements of solute form bond with solvent.
There is specific limit for any alloying system to add alloying element
into the parent metal to get the properties of resultant alloy.This
specific limit is called as ‘solid solubility’
Beyond solid solubility limit it is also possible to add alloying element
into parent metal when but when solubility limit exceeds a second
phase starts to appear with solid solution this second phase is called
as ‘intermediate phase’.
41. Solidification of a pure metal
The first step in the solidification is the formation of nuclei the nucleus can be regarded as a small cluster of atoms having a
right crystalline arrangement. When the melt is cooled below its melting point nuclei begin to form in many part of the melt at
same time.
The rate of nuclei formation depends on the rate of ‘undercooling or supercoiling’ and also on pressure and impurities
which facilitates the nucleation.
At any temperature below melting point , a nucleus has to be of certain minimum size so that it will grow this size is called as
‘critical size’ of nucleus.
Particles smaller that critical size will get dissolved by vigorous bombardment of neighboring atoms these are called
‘embryos’. With the temperature lowered the vibrations of atoms gradually decreases thus increasing chance of survival of
embryos.
Liquid
Metal
Solid
Temp
Time
Freezing
Point
42. Therefore, with decrease in temperature the critical size also
decreases which means with at lower temperature the nuclei with
smaller size can also survive.
Hence, at lower temperatures nuclei become progressively smaller in
size but the number greatly increases.
Growth of nuclei occur by diffusion process which is a function of
temperature hence, nucleation and rate of growth is also function of
temperature.
43. Unit 1: Properties, Structure of
Materials and Strengthening
Mechanism Part 8
FACULTY: PROF. Y. M. KHAN
Subject: Materials & Metallurgy
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, ICEEM, Aurangabad
44. Cooling curves for binary eutectic alloy
Binary Eutectic is a homogenous mixture of two solids which forms
at a constant temperature during cooling & melts during heating at
a constant temperature.
Binary Eutectic Transformation
Constant Temp
46. Temp
0C
Time
A
B C
D
L
L+S1+S2
S1+S2
Applying Gibb’s Phase Rule
In Region AB
P+F=C+1
P = 1, C = 2
F = 2
Bi-variant
In Region BC
P+F=C+1
P = 3, C = 2
F = 0
Invariant
In Region CD
P+F=C+1
P = 2, C = 2
F = 1
Univariant
F = 2
F = 0
F = 1
47. Eutectic transformation occurs at definite composition
called eutectic composition. If this definite composition of
off(differ) from its fixed value then such an alloy is called
either HYPO or HYPER Eutectic Alloy
Cooling curves for off eutectic alloy(binary)
48. Cooling curves for off eutectic alloy(binary)
Temp
0C
Time
A
B
C D
L
L+S1 (Or S2 ) L+S1+S2
E
S1+S2
49. Temp
0C
Time
A
B
C D
L
L+S1 (Or S2 )
L+S1+S2
E
S1+S2
Applying Gibb’s Phase Rule In Region AB
P+F=C+1
P = 1, C = 2
F = 2
Bi-variant
In Region BC
P+F=C+1
P = 2, C = 2
F = 1
Univariant
In Region CD
P+F=C+1
P = 3, C = 2
F = 0
Invariant
In Region DE
P+F=C+1
P = 2, C = 2
F = 1
Univariant
F = 2
F = 1
F = 0
F = 1
The start of the solidification is called liquidus
because above this temp metal is in liquid
state, and end of solidification is called solidus
because below it metal is in solid state.
50. Polymorphism
Many Substances exist in more than one stable crystalline form. The various
forms have the same composition but different crystal structure. Such a change
in crystal structure with same composition is called ‘Polymorphism’. This may be
due to change in the pressure or temperature or both.
It is observed in pure metals and compounds as well, both organic and
inorganic.
The Polymorphism of metals is often called ‘Allotropy’ and the transformation
is reversible with change in temperature at a given pressure.
The metals which exhibit polymorphism, their different crystal forms are called
‘Polymorphs’.
The substance which exhibit polymorphism is described either Dimorphic or
Trimorphic depending on its number of forms.
51. Iron Allotropy, Cooling Curve for Pure Iron
Temp 0C
Time
A
Liquid
B C
D E
F G
H I
J
δ iron
γ iron
α iron (Non Magnetic)
α iron (Magnetic)
1539
1400
910
768
52. Polymorphism
Many Substances exist in more than one stable crystalline form. The various
forms have the same composition but different crystal structure. Such a change
in crystal structure with same composition is called ‘Polymorphism’. This may be
due to change in the pressure or temperature or both.
It is observed in pure metals and compounds as well, both organic and
inorganic.
The Polymorphism of metals is often called ‘Allotropy’ and the transformation
is reversible with change in temperature at a given pressure.
The metals which exhibit polymorphism, their different crystal forms are called
‘Polymorphs’.
The substance which exhibit polymorphism is described either Dimorphic or
Trimorphic depending on its number of forms.
53. Iron Allotropy, Cooling Curve for Pure Iron
Temp 0C
Time
A
Liquid
B C
D E
F G
H I
J
δ iron
γ iron
α iron (Non Magnetic)
α iron (Magnetic)
1539
1400
910
768
54. Defects in Crystal
Types of Crystal Defect
1. Point defect
2. Line defect
3. Planer Defect
4. Volume Defect