This document discusses various diagramming techniques that can be used to analyze organizational change. It begins by explaining that organizations are complex systems composed of interrelated subsystems and components. Diagramming tools can help define, analyze, and manipulate these systems to better understand how a change might impact them. Several specific diagramming techniques are described, including input/output diagrams, flow diagrams, relationship maps, systems maps, influence charts, and multiple cause diagrams. The document emphasizes that managing complex change requires a multidisciplinary approach involving multiple analytical techniques in addition to diagramming. It also introduces an Intervention Strategy Model (ISM) as a structured process for analyzing and implementing change through definition, evaluation, and implementation phases.

1. UNIT II
MAPPING
CHANGE

2. Introduction
The systems which constitute the organization of today
are complex: they each have their own formal and
informal objectives which, when managed effectively,
achieve the primary objective. Change in any one
system, or in its relationship with others, may
therefore impact on the total structure and eventually
on organizational performance.

3. The role of diagramming in system
investigation
Organizations are composed of numerous interrelated systems
and sub-systems, which in turn may be subdivided into
components and ultimately into indivisible elements. These
systems are designed to ensure the accomplishment of
organizational goals and must, if the goals are to be achieved,
operate in harmony.
Machinery, technology, procedures, policies, operatives,
supervisors and management are, depending on the view
being taken, either systems, components or elements. Once a
change impacts upon the equilibrium of a system, it, along
with any interrelated systems, will be disrupted and their
performance impaired. Diagramming tools assist in defining,
analysing and manipulating the systems environment.

4. Diagrams not only assist in defining change events.
They also offer a means of analysing, or plotting,
developing situations, specifying end points, and
lastly, but certainly not least, a means of
communicating both within and outside the
managing group. As long as the diagrams add value to
the process of managing change they will have served
their purpose.
By defining aspects of the system(s) undergoing change
as above then the problem owner(s) will identify the
extent to which the change will impact on: the
relationships affected; the key influencing factors; the
likely management team; and the potential reaction to
the change itself. Diagramming facilitates not only
definition but also leads to understand-ing because it
allows the study of potential and actual behaviour, for
both hard and soft aspects of the change.

5. Conflicting forces Dynamic environment
Definition tool Analytical tool Communications tool
Change
situation
Need to define the
change environment
View as a
system
Diagramming to
define systems
relationships
Results in:

6.  Diagrams may be employed to fully define
the change process and are particularly
effective when applied to the solution of
complex messy problems, which are capable
of being considered in systems terms, those
in the ‘flexi’ area of the change continuum
and, of course, hard physical problems

7. Diagram types Descriptor
Input/output Shows the inputs to a system and the resulting
outputs, as well as any feedback loops
Flow, process and activity A linked representation of a series of steps, activities
or events describing a process
Force field A basic visual representation of the driving and
restraining forces relating to a change event
Fish bone Generally used to work back from a problem situation
determining root causes
Multiple cause As above
Relationship mapping Details the relationships between both ‘hard’ and/or
‘soft’ systems components
Systems mapping Details the system(s) to be affected by a change
Influence (spider’s web) Charts the influences, and their linkages, on a
charting particular system or situation
Diagram types

8. Analysis of
Definition of
Definition of the impact Communication
Action the desired
the existing on the of the
definition ‘new’ steady
steady state existing implications
state
steady state
Process monitoring
and control
Eg: Transition process chart

9. Diagrams may be profitably employed by management when
they are:
• defining and understanding the nature of those systems
affected by the change (before);
• illustrating the means and stages associated with progress
from the present to the desired
situation (during);
• defining and understanding the nature of the desired
solution/situation (after).
In other words diagrammatic representations may be used to
assist theproblem owner when they are engaged in:
• specification/definition
• understanding
• manipulation/modelling/analysis
• communication
• implementation
• standardization.

10. 2. A Review of Basic flow Diagramming
Techniques
Three of the most common and revealing techniques
employed by change management practitioners
deal with ‘flow’ analysis.
The first is the input/output diagram which provides
an easy to follow means of investigating the input
and output flows of physical materials and/or
information with reference to any given system.
The feedback mechanisms facilitating both
control and performance measurement may also
be included. Such a diagram is illustrated below

11. Raw material Finished goods
Finished components
The firm
Waste
Capital Profits
Labour Security
etc. etc.
Feedback:
Performance
quality
Market intelligence
etc.
An input/output diagram with feedback

12. The second technique within this diagramming
category is the traditional flow diagram, which
permits the investigator to study the process steps
and related activities, including
interdependencies, associated with a particular
system. Once again a pictorial representation
provides a useful insight into a system at work, as
the example contained within below figure

13. Sand Cement
A sample flow diagram
Hopper
Water Mixer
Tank
Foundations

14. The last diagram of this section addresses the ‘softer’
issues associated with systems investigation
through the medium of ‘flow’ analysis. Activity
sequence diagrams consider issues and stages of a
process, or elements of a system, which are of non-
physical/technological nature. For example, let us
consider the purchase of a car depicted in below
figure. In such diagrams the activities associated
with key decision points relating to a particular
sequence of events are emphasized for subsequent
study.

15. Monitor finances
Periodic review
of decision
Yes
Contact suitable
suppliers
Evaluate suppliers
Obtain quotations
from short listed
suppliers
Evaluate quotations
Make final selection
Maintain check on
current models
Maintain check on
requirements
Yes NO

16. 3. Systems Relationships:
The Key to Success
To fully understand the nature of a particular change
situation, a problem owner must consider the
relationships that exist between those affected by
the change.
By developing a relationship map, the problem owner
may begin to appreciate the systems interfaces and
complexities that are at work in the change
environment.
By way of an example let us consider the relationship
map in below, which may have been applied when
the UK steel industry was undergoing privatization
(it is not intended to be comprehensive).

17. Employees _________________ Suppliers
Unions
Employers
Investors
Competition
Customers
Government

18. Relationship map for the accessory shop change
Non-destructive
inspection Personnel department Accessory shop
department
personnel
Machine shop
repair Engineering
Accessory shop
Production control Marketing
Customer
Logistics Logistics services

19. 4. Systems Diagramming
 Having considered the problem of defining and
understanding the basic influences associated
with change, the next step is to investigate, in
more depth, the actual systems affected by the
change.
 Systems diagramming is an essential component of
the intervention strategy approach. The sys-tems
approach, through diagramming, brings a degree
of sanity to messy change situations

20. The principal diagramming techniques that will be
employed within the intervention strategy model, are
as follows:
A)SYSTEMS MAPPING
B)INFLUENCE CHARTS
C)MULTIPLE CAUSE DIAGRAMS.

21. A)SYSTEMS MAPPING
 Systems maps need not be complex or difficult to
construct. Their basic function is to present a pictorial
representation of the system undergoing the change and
can if necessary incorporate relevant interrelationships.
 The systems map identifies the systems and any
subsystems associated with the problem and the
relationship map analyses the nature of the linkages
between the systems, their components and their elements.
 A system consists of component parts, or indeed
subsystems, which in turn may be further broken down.
Subdivision ceases once the element level has been
reached, an element being incapable of further division.

22. : Head Office
Buyers Finance
Information Administration
Technology
Branches
Warehousing
Customers
Suppliers
Texstyle World systems map

23. b) Influence Charts
The systems map is, in many ways, only of use when
it is followed by the production of influence
charts. Such charts illustrate influencing factors.
For example, what influencing factors or groups
could act upon a typical manufacturing firm?
Below figure depicts the potential influences at
play.

24. Suppliers Government Technology
Competitors Customers
Shareholders The firm Unions
Consumer groups Employees
Exchange rates Banks The supply chain
Manufacturing influence map

25. c) Multiple Cause Diagrams
 A means of further developing the influence chart is to
consider the causes associated with a change situation
or problem. Multiple cause diagrams examine the
causes behind particular events or activities and
express them diagrammatically.
 For example one may depict, as in below Figure , the
factors that interact to create the energy costs within
the home. From this figure the demand factors could
be examined as shown in next Figure.

26. Government Generating Supply
subsidy costs costs
Electricity Gas
costs costs
Demand
factors
Total
cost
Energy costs multiple cause diagram

27. Time of year
Number of Household
appliances activities
Appliance Economic
age factors
Demand
Demand factors multiple cause diagram

28. A Multi-Disciplinary Approach
 Diagramming alone, while offering significant assistance to manage-
ment, is unlikely to meet all our analytical and research needs in the
field of change management. The successful management of
complex situations calls upon many disciplines and the application of
a wide range of theories and techniques: it truly requires a multi-
disciplinary approach.
 Environmental impact tests based on the previously detailed dia-
gramming techniques, along with related investigative tools, such as
STEPLE (social, technical, economic and political, legal and
environmen-tal analysis), SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats), scenario planning, Delphi techniques,
brainstorming sessions and general auditing tools, assist in
determining the nature of an impending change event. They
commence the process of defining the change, but stop short of fully
specifying its likely impact. That impact will be felt by the systems
that constitute the organization and support its continued success.

29. Major change events – those that are both complex and
strategically focused – cannot be managed simply by
applying interventionist models. However,
intervention strategies can still assist in defining,
investigating and planning for such complex
situations.

30. The Systems Approach to Change
The systems approach is the term given to the analysis of
change situations that is based on a systems view of
the problem.
From the perspective of managing change, a system may
be defined as being an organized assembly of
components, which are related in such a way that the
behavior of any individual component will influence
the overall status of the system.

31. Interrelated systems dependencies
Systems level Status Objective
The driver Subsystem To manage and direct the system.
The engine Subsystem To provide the car’s driving force.
The gear box Subsystems To engage and influence the driving force.
The fuel pump Component To provide petrol to the combustion chamber.
The gearshift Element To facilitate driver/gearbox interaction.

32. System objectives need not be singular, as
they are in this example. The car’s objective
is to provide transport but this may be
subdivided and thus provide a greater
insight into the system as a whole. It is
important to consider not only the prime
objective but also any associated sub
objectives as they may be of particular
interest to both the internal analysis of the
system under study and to any other related
external systems

33. Systems Autonomy and Behavior
The diagramming techniques previously introduced, along
with the construction of objective trees, provide the
problem owner with the ability to define the systems
environment effectively, prior to and/or during a change
event. Care must be taken to define the scope of the change
environment in an accurate manner.
To accomplish this, consideration and effort must be devoted
to determining the degree of systems autonomy existing
within the change environment. Within any given
environment its systems and their internal workings will
have both collective and individual boundaries. The
problem owner must ensure that these boundaries are set
when defining the change in such a way as to exclude any
non-essential relationships.

34. The consideration of the degree of autonomy associated with a
given system determines its boundaries in relation to the
study objectives. What is actually being considered is the
behaviour of the systems with particular reference to the
nature and relevance of their internal and external
relationships. A study of systems behaviour requires that the
following three process areas be reviewed:
 the physical processes constituting the operational system;
 the communications processes handling the transfer of
information and knowledge within and between systems;
 the monitoring processes maintaining system stability
through active knowledge based interventions.

35. The Intervention strategy Model (ISM)
Now what is required is some means of handling, in a
structured manner, the analysis and implementation
of a change situation. An intervention strategy may be
regarded as the procedural methodology for
successfully intervening in the working processes of
the original system. The ultimate result should be a
stable new environment, which incorporates the
desired changes.

36. Problem initialization
Definition phase
Stage 1: Problem/systems specification
Potential
Stage 2: Formulation of success criteria stage
iteration
Stage 3: Identification of performance indicators
Stage review: progress agreed
Potential
phase
Evaluation phase
iteration
Stage 4: Generation of options and solutions
Stage 5: Selection of evaluation techniques and
Potential
stage
option editing
iteration
Stage 6: Option evaluation
Stage review: progress agreed
Potential
phase
Implementation phase
iteration
Forward loop:
Stage 7: Development of implementation strategies
implementation
considerations
Stage 8: Consolidation Potential
stage
iteration
Stage review: progress agreed

37. Successful systems intervention, or problem formulation and
solution, requires the management team, or the individual, to
proceed through the three interdependent phases until the
management objectives have been achieved. The three basic
phases of ISM are highlighted in above figure .
A number of important points must be noted relating to the
effective and efficient use of the model prior to investigating
each of the individual stages. They are as follows:
•Iterations may be required at any point, within or between
phases, owing to the inherent dynamic nature of change events.
Once the desired position has been reached, further envi-
ronmental developments may cause the transition process to be
re-entered at some later date.
•Problem owners and any other associated change agents
should be involved throughout. It is essential that they be
committed to the initiative, as they are the driving forces.

38. •There is a tendency to rush through the diagnostic
phase, with problem owners basing assumptions on their
own brand of ‘common sense’. Time spent getting it right
first time is seldom wasted. Specification and description
are crucial to the understanding of a change situation.
•It is always advisable to attempt to produce quantifiable
performance indicators in stage 3, as they will simplify the
evaluation process in stage 6.
•It is virtually impossible not to start thinking about
solution options during the diagnostic phase, especially
on a ‘live’ problem. There is no harm in this, but do not
skip stages. Put the options aside until stage 4.

39. Total Project Management
TPM recognizes that a technically oriented approach to
the management of complex projects must be
augmented by the adoption of ‘softer’ people-centred
approaches. As already stated, projects consist of both
technological (systems based) and organizational
(people based) elements.
A systems-based planning technique is needed to handle
technological or physical change; after all, it is in fact
the systems that are being manipulated. However,
adopting when dealing with the human aspects of the
project a purely systematic approach may lead to
subsequent implementation difficulties.

40. Phase 1: project definition
•Objectives
•Constraints
•Success criteria
•Project validation
•Activity classification
Phase 3: implementation
•Plan ...
•Sequences
•Targets
•Agreements
•Consolidation
Phase 2: planning
•Project overview
•Network development
•Network integration
•Performance indicators

41. Table 7.2 TPM phase descriptions
Factors addressed Techniques employed
Phase 1: project definition For example:
Definition of the current position … Brainstorming techniques
 Specification of environment Team building
 Evaluation of the project System diagramming
 Definition of the project owners Factor ranking
Decision trees
Definition of the preferred position … Investment appraisal
 Project objectives Stakeholder analysis
 Resource constraints Competence analysis
Phase 2: planning For example:
 Integrated project plan Gantt charts
 Performance indicators Cash flow analysis
 Potential iterations Critical path methods
Resource scheduling
Investment appraisal
Phase 3: implementation For example:
 Presentation of the plan Charting methods …
 Application and monitoring of process charts
 review systems cumulative spend charts
 Potential iterations Variance analysis …
 Autopsy of the project exception reporting
•Resource requirements
•Success criteria
•Activity classification