MCD

1. Introduction
Messy change situations – those which may be classified as ‘flexi’, present
management with a multitude of complex, interrelated and conflicting problems and
issues. The ‘mess’ resembles, in its complexity of relationships, the structure of a
spider’s web. The spider builds a complex structure, which if the imagination is
stretched, may be regarded as its organization. The structure is organized in such a
manner that it provides a collective strength that may be brought to bear against
intruders, be they a potential launch or an aggressive predator. An organization is
built on a foundation of systems which, just like those of the spider, have a common
primary structural role and may respond in a like manner when faced by an intruder,
or indeed change.
The systems which constitute the organization of today are complex: they each have
their own formal and informal objectives which, when managed effectively, achieve
the primary objective. Change in any one system, or in its relationship with others,
may therefore impact on the total structure and eventually on organizational
performance.

2.  Organizations are composed of numerous interrelated
systems and sub-systems, which in turn may be subdivided
into components and ultimately into indivisible elements.
These systems are designed to ensure the
accomplishment of organizational goals and must, if the
goals are to be achieved, operate in harmony. Machinery,
technology, procedures, policies, operatives, supervisors
and management are, depending on the view being taken,
either systems, components or elements. Once a change
impacts upon the equilibrium of a system, it, along with any
interrelated systems, will be disrupted and their
performance impaired. Diagramming tools assist in
defining, analyzing and manipulating the systems
environment.

3.  Diagrams not only assist in defining change events. They also
offer a means of analyzing, or plotting, developing situations,
specifying end points, and lastly, but certainly not least, a means
of communicating both within and outside the managing group.
As long as the diagrams add value to the process of managing
change they will have served their purpose.

 By defining aspects of the system(s) undergoing change as
above then the problem owner(s) will identify the extent to which
the change will impact on: the relationships affected; the key
influencing factors; the likely management team; and the
potential reaction to the change itself. Diagramming facilitates
not only definition but also leads to understand-ing because it
allows the study of potential and actual behaviour, for both hard
and soft aspects of the change.

4. Conflicting forces Dynamic environment
Definition tool Analytical tool Communications tool
Change
situation
Need to define the
change environment
View as a
system
Diagramming to
define systems
relationships
Results in:

5.  Diagrams may be employed to fully define
the change process and are particularly
effective when applied to the solution of
complex messy problems, which are capable
of being considered in systems terms, those
in the ‘flexi’ area of the change continuum
and, of course, hard physical

6. Diagram types Descriptor
Input/output Shows the inputs to a system and the resulting
outputs, as well as any feedback loops
Flow, process and activity A linked representation of a series of steps, activities
or events describing a process
Force field A basic visual representation of the driving and
restraining forces relating to a change event
Fish bone Generally used to work back from a problem situation
determining root causes
Multiple cause As above
Relationship mapping Details the relationships between both ‘hard’ and/or
‘soft’ systems components
Systems mapping Details the system(s) to be affected by a change
Influence (spider’s web) Charts the influences, and their linkages, on a
charting particular system or situation

7. Analysis of
Definition of
Definition of the impact Communication
Action the desired
the existing on the of the
definition ‘new’ steady
steady state existing implications
state
steady state
Process monitoring
and control

8. Three of the most common and revealing
techniques employed by change management
practitioners deal with ‘flow’ analysis. The first is
the input/output diagram which provides an
easy to follow means of investigating the input
and output flows of physical materials and/or
information with reference to any given system.
The feedback mecha-nisms facilitating both
control and performance measurement may
also be included. Such a diagram is illustrated
below

9. Raw material Finished goods
Finished components
The firm
Waste
Capital Profits
Labour Security
etc. etc.
Feedback:
Performance
quality
Market intelligence
etc.
An input/output diagram with feedback

10. The second technique within this diagramming
category is the traditional flow diagram,
which permits the investigator to study the
process steps and related activities,
including interdependencies, associated with
a particular system. Once again a pictorial
representation provides a useful insight into
a system at work, as the example contained
within below figure

11. Sand Cement
A sample flow diagram
Hopper
Water Mixer
Tank
Foundations

12. Both the input/output and flow diagrams may be further developed to incorporate
such information as:
 Who does what and why?

 What information do they require and why?

 Where does the information come from – channels, formats, etc.?

 What factors influence systems/individual performance?
The last diagram of this section addresses the ‘softer’ issues associated with
systems investigation through the medium of ‘flow’ analysis. Activity sequence
diagrams consider issues and stages of a process, or elements of a system,
which are of non-physical/technological nature. For example, let us consider
the purchase of a car depicted in below figure. In such diagrams the activities
associated with key decision points relating to a particular sequence of events
are emphasized for subsequent study.

13. Monitor finances
Periodic review
of decision
Yes
Contact suitable
suppliers
Evaluate suppliers
Obtain quotations
from short listed
suppliers
Evaluate quotations
Make final selection
Maintain check on
current models
Maintain check on
requirements
Yes NO

14. To fully understand the nature of a particular
change situation, a problem owner must
consider the relationships that exist between
those affected by the change. By developing
a relationship map, the problem owner may
begin to appreciate the systems interfaces
and complexities that are at work in the
change environment.

15. Employees _________________ Suppliers
Unions
Employers
Investors
Competition
Customers
Government

16. Having considered the problem of defining and
understanding the basic influences
associated with change, the next step is to
investigate, in more depth, the actual
systems affected by the change. Systems
diagramming is an essential component of
the intervention strategy approach. The sys-
tems approach, through diagramming, brings
a degree of sanity to messy change
situations

17. The principal diagramming techniques that will
be employed within the intervention strategy
model, are as follows:
A)SYSTEMS MAPPING
B)INFLUENCE CHARTS
C)MULTIPLE CAUSE DIAGRAMS.

18.  Systems maps need not be complex or difficult to construct.
Their basic function is to present a pictorial representation of the
system undergoing the change and can if necessary incorporate
relevant interrelationships. The systems map is often employed
in conjunction with the relationship map discussed in the
previous section. The systems map identifies the systems and
any subsystems associated with the problem and the rela-
tionship map analyses the nature of the linkages between the
systems, their components and their elements.
 A system consists of component parts, or indeed subsystems,
which in turn may be further broken down. Subdivision ceases
once the element level has been reached, an element being
incapable of further division.

19. : Head Office
Buyers Finance
Information Administration
Technology
Branches
Warehousing
Customers
Suppliers

20. The systems map is, in many ways, only of use
when it is followed by the production of
influence charts. Such charts illustrate
influencing factors. For example, what
influencing factors or groups could act upon
a typical manufacturing firm? Below figure
depicts the potential influences at play.

21. Suppliers Government Technology
Competitors Customers
Shareholders The firm Unions
Consumer groups Employees
Exchange rates Banks The supply chain
Manufacturing influence map

22.  A means of further developing the influence
chart is to consider the causes associated with
a change situation or problem. Multiple cause
diagrams examine the causes behind particular
events or activities and express them
diagrammatically.
 For example one may depict, as in below Figure
, the factors that interact to create the energy
costs within the home. From this figure the
demand factors could be examined as shown in
next Figure.

23. Government Generating Supply
subsidy costs costs
Electricity Gas
costs costs
Demand
factors
Total
cost
Energy costs multiple cause diagram

24. Time of year
Number of Household
appliances activities
Appliance Economic
age factors
Demand
Demand factors multiple cause diagram

25.  Diagramming alone, while offering significant assistance to
manage-ment, is unlikely to meet all our analytical and research
needs in the field of change management. The successful
management of complex situations calls upon many disciplines
and the application of a wide range of theories and techniques: it
truly requires a multi-disciplinary approach.
 Environmental impact tests based on the previously detailed dia-
gramming techniques, along with related investigative tools,
such as STEPLE (social, technical, economic and political, legal
and environmen-tal analysis), SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats), scenario planning, Delphi techniques,
brainstorming sessions and general auditing tools, assist in
determining the nature of an impending change event. They
commence the process of defining the change, but stop short of
fully specifying its likely impact. That impact will be felt by the
systems that constitute the organization and support its
continued success.

26. Major change events – those that are both
complex and strategically focused – cannot
be managed simply by applying
interventionist models. However, intervention
strategies can still assist in defining,
investigating and planning for such complex
situations.

27. The systems approach is the term given to the
analysis of change situations that is based
on a systems view of the problem.
From the perspective of managing change, a
system may be defined as being an
organized assembly of components, which
are related in such a way that the behavior of
any individual component will influence the
overall status of the system.

28. Interrelated systems dependencies
Systems level Status Objective
The driver Subsystem To manage and direct the system.
The engine Subsystem To provide the car’s driving force.
The gear box Subsystems To engage and influence the driving force.
The fuel pump Component To provide petrol to the combustion chamber.
The gearshift Element To facilitate driver/gearbox interaction.

29. System objectives need not be singular, as they are in
this example. The car’s objective is to provide transport
but this may be subdivided and thus provide a greater
insight into the system as a whole. It is impor-tant to
consider not only the prime objective but also any
associated sub objectives as they may be of particular
interest to both the internal analysis of the system under
study and to any other related external systems

30. The diagramming techniques previously introduced, along
with the construction of objective trees, provide the
problem owner with the ability to define the systems
environment effectively, prior to and/or during a change
event. Care must be taken to define the scope of the
change environment in an accurate manner. To
accomplish this, consideration and effort must be devoted
to determining the degree of systems autonomy existing
within the change environment. Within any given
environment its systems and their internal workings will
have both collective and individual boundaries. The
problem owner must ensure that these boundaries are set
when defining the change in such a way as to exclude any
non-essential relationships.

31. The consideration of the degree of autonomy associated with a
given system determines its boundaries in relation to the
study objectives. What is actually being considered is the
behaviour of the systems with particular reference to the
nature and relevance of their internal and external
relationships. A study of systems behaviour requires that the
following three process areas be reviewed:
 the physical processes constituting the operational system;
 the communications processes handling the transfer of
information and knowledge within and between systems;
 the monitoring processes maintaining system stability
through active knowledge based interventions.

32. Now what is required is some means of
handling, in a structured manner, the
analysis and implementation of a change
situation. An intervention strategy may be
regarded as the procedural methodology for
successfully intervening in the working
processes of the original system. The
ultimate result should be a stable new
environment, which incorporates the desired
changes.

33. Problem initialization
Definition phase
Stage 1: Problem/systems specification
Potential
Stage 2: Formulation of success criteria stage
iteration
Stage 3: Identification of performance indicators
Stage review: progress agreed
Potential
phase
Evaluation phase
iteration
Stage 4: Generation of options and solutions
Stage 5: Selection of evaluation techniques and
Potential
stage
option editing
iteration
Stage 6: Option evaluation
Stage review: progress agreed
Potential
phase
Implementation phase
iteration
Forward loop:
Stage 7: Development of implementation strategies
implementation
considerations
Stage 8: Consolidation Potential
stage
iteration
Stage review: progress agreed

34. Successful systems intervention, or problem formulation and
solution, requires the management team, or the individual, to
proceed through the three interdependent phases until the
management objectives have been achieved. The three basic
phases of ISM are highlighted in above figure .
A number of important points must be noted relating to the
effective and efficient use of the model prior to investigating
each of the individ-ual stages. They are as follows:
•Iterations may be required at any point, within or between
phases, owing to the inherent dynamic nature of change
events. Once the desired position has been reached, further
envi-ronmental developments may cause the transition
process to be re-entered at some later date.
•Problem owners and any other associated change agents
should be involved throughout. It is essential that they be
committed to the initiative, as they are the driving forces.

35. •There is a tendency to rush through the diagnostic
phase, with problem owners basing assump-tions on
their own brand of ‘common sense’. Time spent getting
it right first time is seldom wasted. Specification and
description are crucial to the understanding of a change
situation.
•It is always advisable to attempt to produce quantifiable
performance indicators in stage 3, as they will simplify
the evaluation process in stage 6.
•It is virtually impossible not to start thinking about
solution options during the diagnostic phase, especially
on a ‘live’ problem. There is no harm in this, but do not
skip stages. Put the options aside until stage 4.

36. TPM recognizes that a technically oriented
approach to the management of complex
projects must be augmented by the adoption of
‘softer’ people-centred approaches. As already
stated, projects consist of both technological
(systems based) and organizational (people
based) elements. A systems-based planning
technique is needed to handle technological or
physical change; after all, it is in fact the
systems that are being manipulated. However,
adopting when dealing with the human aspects
of the project a purely systematic approach may
lead to subsequent implementation diffi-culties.

37. Phase 1: project definition
•Objectives
•Constraints
•Success criteria
•Project validation
•Activity classification
Phase 3: implementation
•Plan ...
•Sequences
•Targets
•Agreements
•Consolidation
Phase 2: planning
•Project overview
•Network development
•Network integration
•Performance indicators
Iterations

38. Table 7.2 TPM phase descriptions
Factors addressed Techniques employed
Phase 1: project definition For example:
Definition of the current position … Brainstorming techniques
 Specification of environment Team building
 Evaluation of the project System diagramming
 Definition of the project owners Factor ranking
Decision trees
Definition of the preferred position … Investment appraisal
 Project objectives Stakeholder analysis
 Resource constraints Competence analysis
Phase 2: planning For example:
 Integrated project plan Gantt charts
 Performance indicators Cash flow analysis
 Potential iterations Critical path methods
Resource scheduling
Investment appraisal
Phase 3: implementation For example:
 Presentation of the plan Charting methods …
 Application and monitoring of process charts
 review systems cumulative spend charts
 Potential iterations Variance analysis …
 Autopsy of the project exception reporting
•Resource requirements
•Success criteria
•Activity classification