Lecture to Master of Business Management Students (MBM) at the Moshi Cooperative University, Moshi Tanzania. The Objective was that at the end of the lecture students should be able to determine sample size scientifically.
Sensitivity, specificity and likelihood ratiosChew Keng Sheng
A short tutorial on sensitivity, specificity and likelihood ratios. In this presentation, I demonstrate why likelihood ratios are better parameters compared to sensitivity and specificity in real world setting.
This document discusses confidence intervals, which provide a range of values that is likely to include an unknown population parameter based on a sample statistic. It defines key concepts like confidence level, confidence limits, and factors that determine how to set the confidence interval like sample size, population variability, and precision of values. It explains how larger sample sizes and more precise measurements result in narrower confidence intervals. Applications to clinical trials are discussed, showing how sample size impacts the ability to make definitive recommendations based on trial results.
This document provides an overview of descriptive epidemiology. Descriptive epidemiology involves studying the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, without comparing groups. The main objectives are to describe the incidence, prevalence, and natural history of diseases and their distribution according to person, place and time. Descriptive studies make hypotheses about potential causes, but do not confirm them due to the lack of a comparison group. Key steps include defining the population and disease, describing disease distribution by time, place and person, measuring disease occurrence, comparing to known indices, and formulating etiological hypotheses.
Basics in Epidemiology & Biostatistics 1 RSS6 2014RSS6
1) The document discusses the differences between biostatistics and epidemiology. Biostatistics involves applying statistical methods to biology, medicine, and public health, while epidemiology studies patterns of health and illness in populations.
2) Descriptive statistics like means, standard deviations, and percentages are used to summarize data, while inferential statistics allow inferences to be made about populations based on samples.
3) The document covers different types of data like quantitative, qualitative, discrete, continuous and normal distributions, as well as ways to visually and numerically present data using things like histograms, percentages, and measures of central tendency.
This document discusses massive transfusion protocols (MTP) for trauma victims who experience severe bleeding. It describes the presentation of a 64-year-old male trauma patient who suffered injuries from a motor vehicle crash including internal bleeding and fractures. He received over 18 units of blood products during treatment including surgery. The document then provides details on MTPs including their components, guidelines for blood product ratios, and studies investigating optimal resuscitation approaches to reduce mortality from hemorrhage.
Non – Probability Sampling (Convenience, Purposive).Vikas Kumar
This document discusses different types of sampling methods used in social science research. It defines sampling as selecting a subset of individuals from a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. The main types discussed are probability sampling, which gives all individuals an equal chance of selection, and non-probability sampling, which does not. Specific non-probability methods explained include convenience sampling, where samples are selected based on accessibility, and purposive sampling, where the researcher selects specific samples based on characteristics relevant to the research question.
The document discusses several potential complications of blood transfusion:
1) The most common complications are febrile nonhemolytic and chill-rigor reactions. The most serious complications are acute hemolytic reactions and transfusion-related acute lung injury, which have high mortality rates.
2) If any symptoms of a transfusion reaction occur, such as chills, fever, or breathing problems, the transfusion must be stopped immediately and investigated.
3) Delayed hemolytic reactions can occur 1-4 weeks after transfusion if a patient has low antibody levels not detected on pretransfusion tests.
Sample size calculations are an important step in planning epidemiological studies. An adequate sample size is needed to ensure reliable results, while samples that are too large or small can lead to wasted resources or inaccurate findings. Different study designs require different sample size calculation methods. Factors considered include the desired precision or confidence level, population parameters, and variability. Several formulas and online calculators exist to determine appropriate sample sizes for estimating means, proportions, and comparing groups in studies like clinical trials, surveys, case-control studies, and experiments. Larger effects, more samples, less variability, and higher significance levels can increase a test's statistical power.
Sensitivity, specificity and likelihood ratiosChew Keng Sheng
A short tutorial on sensitivity, specificity and likelihood ratios. In this presentation, I demonstrate why likelihood ratios are better parameters compared to sensitivity and specificity in real world setting.
This document discusses confidence intervals, which provide a range of values that is likely to include an unknown population parameter based on a sample statistic. It defines key concepts like confidence level, confidence limits, and factors that determine how to set the confidence interval like sample size, population variability, and precision of values. It explains how larger sample sizes and more precise measurements result in narrower confidence intervals. Applications to clinical trials are discussed, showing how sample size impacts the ability to make definitive recommendations based on trial results.
This document provides an overview of descriptive epidemiology. Descriptive epidemiology involves studying the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, without comparing groups. The main objectives are to describe the incidence, prevalence, and natural history of diseases and their distribution according to person, place and time. Descriptive studies make hypotheses about potential causes, but do not confirm them due to the lack of a comparison group. Key steps include defining the population and disease, describing disease distribution by time, place and person, measuring disease occurrence, comparing to known indices, and formulating etiological hypotheses.
Basics in Epidemiology & Biostatistics 1 RSS6 2014RSS6
1) The document discusses the differences between biostatistics and epidemiology. Biostatistics involves applying statistical methods to biology, medicine, and public health, while epidemiology studies patterns of health and illness in populations.
2) Descriptive statistics like means, standard deviations, and percentages are used to summarize data, while inferential statistics allow inferences to be made about populations based on samples.
3) The document covers different types of data like quantitative, qualitative, discrete, continuous and normal distributions, as well as ways to visually and numerically present data using things like histograms, percentages, and measures of central tendency.
This document discusses massive transfusion protocols (MTP) for trauma victims who experience severe bleeding. It describes the presentation of a 64-year-old male trauma patient who suffered injuries from a motor vehicle crash including internal bleeding and fractures. He received over 18 units of blood products during treatment including surgery. The document then provides details on MTPs including their components, guidelines for blood product ratios, and studies investigating optimal resuscitation approaches to reduce mortality from hemorrhage.
Non – Probability Sampling (Convenience, Purposive).Vikas Kumar
This document discusses different types of sampling methods used in social science research. It defines sampling as selecting a subset of individuals from a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. The main types discussed are probability sampling, which gives all individuals an equal chance of selection, and non-probability sampling, which does not. Specific non-probability methods explained include convenience sampling, where samples are selected based on accessibility, and purposive sampling, where the researcher selects specific samples based on characteristics relevant to the research question.
The document discusses several potential complications of blood transfusion:
1) The most common complications are febrile nonhemolytic and chill-rigor reactions. The most serious complications are acute hemolytic reactions and transfusion-related acute lung injury, which have high mortality rates.
2) If any symptoms of a transfusion reaction occur, such as chills, fever, or breathing problems, the transfusion must be stopped immediately and investigated.
3) Delayed hemolytic reactions can occur 1-4 weeks after transfusion if a patient has low antibody levels not detected on pretransfusion tests.
Sample size calculations are an important step in planning epidemiological studies. An adequate sample size is needed to ensure reliable results, while samples that are too large or small can lead to wasted resources or inaccurate findings. Different study designs require different sample size calculation methods. Factors considered include the desired precision or confidence level, population parameters, and variability. Several formulas and online calculators exist to determine appropriate sample sizes for estimating means, proportions, and comparing groups in studies like clinical trials, surveys, case-control studies, and experiments. Larger effects, more samples, less variability, and higher significance levels can increase a test's statistical power.
Sensitivity and specificity are measures used to evaluate how well a medical test detects a disease. Sensitivity refers to the percentage of sick people who test positive, while specificity refers to the percentage of healthy people who test negative. In an example evaluating a test on 100 people where 30 had a disease, the test correctly identified 25 sick people and incorrectly identified 5 as healthy, for a sensitivity of 25/30. It correctly identified 68 healthy people and incorrectly identified 2 as sick, for a specificity of 68/70.
This document describes a cross-sectional study and its methodology. A cross-sectional study involves collecting data on exposure and outcome variables from a population at a single point in time. The document discusses the differences between descriptive and analytical cross-sectional studies. Descriptive studies measure prevalence, while analytical studies test associations between exposures and outcomes. The document provides examples of cross-sectional study design, biases, advantages, and guidelines for evaluating validity.
This document provides an overview of cross-sectional studies, including what they are, their uses, methodology, advantages, and disadvantages. A cross-sectional study involves observing a population at a single point in time to determine prevalence of disease. It is a quick and inexpensive way to describe characteristics of a population and identify associations between variables. However, it cannot determine causation due to its observational nature.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
The document provides an overview of blood transfusion, including donor selection, blood components and their indications, pre-transfusion handling, administration principles, massive transfusion, autologous transfusion, complications and their management, and blood substitutes. Donor selection involves medical history screening and health assessments. Key blood components discussed are packed red blood cells, platelet concentrates, fresh frozen plasma, and cryoprecipitate. Proper storage, grouping, compatibility testing and administration procedures are outlined to ensure safety. Complications can be immediate or delayed, including infections transmitted and reactions to plasma proteins. Blood substitutes under development aim to replace functions of plasma, red cells and platelets.
The document discusses various measures used to assess the strength and nature of associations between variables in epidemiological studies. It describes difference measures like absolute risk and ratio measures like relative risk and odds ratio. It explains how relative risk is calculated in cohort studies and how odds ratio is used as a measure of association in case-control studies. The relationship between relative risk and odds ratio is also covered.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
This document discusses survival analysis techniques. It begins with an overview of survival, censoring, and the need for survival analysis when not all patients have died or had the event of interest. It then describes the key techniques of life tables/actuarial analysis and the Kaplan-Meier method. Life tables involve constructing a hypothetical cohort and estimating survival at different ages based on mortality rates. The Kaplan-Meier method is commonly used to illustrate survival curves and gives partial credit to censored observations. A modified life table is also presented to analyze survival outcomes in different treatment groups.
The ppt is a short description about how to ascertain the validity, ie; sensitivity and specificity of a screening test as well as their predictive powers. you can also find the technique to ascertain the best possible screening test through the help of an ROC curve...
This document provides an overview of cohort studies. It defines a cohort study as an analytical study that observes groups over time to determine the frequency of disease among those with and without an exposure. Key features discussed include cohorts being identified prior to disease appearance and the study proceeding from cause to effect. Prospective, retrospective, and ambidirectional cohort study designs are described. Steps of cohort studies include selection of study subjects, obtaining exposure data, comparing exposed and unexposed groups, follow up, and analysis of incidence rates.
1) Z-scores are a way to standardize scores on a test or other variable by expressing them in terms of the mean and standard deviation.
2) A z-score tells you how many standard deviations an individual score is above or below the mean.
3) Standardizing scores using z-scores allows direct comparisons of scores even when tests or variables have different means and standard deviations.
These annotated slides will help you interpret an OR or RR in clinical terms. Please download these slides and view them in PowerPoint so you can view the annotations describing each slide.
This document discusses disease screening and provides information on various aspects of screening programs and tests. It defines screening as actively searching for unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals using simple tests. The key points are:
- Screening is part of secondary prevention and aims to detect diseases early when they may be still curable. It involves testing populations, not individuals with symptoms.
- An ideal screening test is both highly sensitive and specific, but in practice these factors typically have an inverse relationship. Sensitivity and specificity can be adjusted by changing the test cutoff criteria.
- For a screening program to be effective, the disease must be an important health problem that can be detected early and treated effectively to improve outcomes. The screening test
- Cluster randomization trials are experiments where intact social units like medical practices, communities, or hospitals are randomly assigned to intervention groups rather than independent individuals. This is done when the intervention is naturally applied at a cluster level or to avoid treatment contamination between groups.
- Challenges of cluster randomization trials include having a unit of randomization that differs from the unit of analysis and reduced power due to intracluster correlation. Statistical methods like mixed models that account for clustering are needed to properly analyze results.
- Proper sample size calculations are also more complex in cluster randomization trials due to the need to adjust for the intracluster correlation coefficient and design effect. Ensuring enough clusters are enrolled is important to maintain adequate power
This document discusses various tools used to measure health indicators, including rates, ratios, and proportions. It provides definitions and examples of different types of rates that are used as mortality and morbidity indicators, such as crude death rate, specific death rates, infant mortality rate, and prevalence. These rates are calculated using a numerator (e.g. number of deaths) and denominator (e.g. population size), and provide information about the health status and needs of a population. Measuring these indicators helps health planners to assess health care needs, allocate resources, and evaluate programs.
SHOCK - PATHOPHYSIOLOGY, TYPES, APPROACH, TREATMENT.DR K TARUN RAO
1. Shock is defined as a state of poor tissue perfusion and cellular metabolism due to circulatory failure and hypoperfusion.
2. The main causes of shock include hypovolemic, cardiogenic, septic, anaphylactic, neurogenic, and respiratory etiologies.
3. The pathophysiology of shock involves a low cardiac output state leading to vasoconstriction and redistribution of blood flow away from non-vital organs to preserve perfusion of vital organs. Persistent shock can progress to cellular damage, organ dysfunction, and death.
Here are the calculations of IMR using the four different methods described in the document:
1. Conventional method:
IMR = (9835 + 9769) / 197003 + 198016 x 1000 = 49.7
2. Numerator adjustment method (f=0.3):
IMR = 0.3x9835 + 0.7x9769 / 191998 + 0.3x197003 + 0.7x198016 x 1000 = 49.7
3. Denominator adjustment method (f=0.3):
IMR = 9835 + 9769 / 0.3x191998 + 0.7x197003 + 0.3x198016 x
This document discusses different measures of morbidity including frequency, duration, and severity. Frequency is measured by incidence and prevalence. Incidence refers to new cases in a defined time period, while prevalence refers to all current cases. Duration is measured by disability rate and severity by case fatality rate. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating incidence rate, point prevalence, and period prevalence. It also discusses factors that influence prevalence and the relationship between incidence and prevalence.
GROUP 1 biostatistics ,sample size and epid.pptxEmma910932
The document discusses sample size determination in epidemiological studies. It defines key terms like sample, sample size, and reasons for determining sample size such as allowing for appropriate analysis and providing an accurate level of precision. Methods for determining sample size discussed include using the entire population (census), published sample sizes, and formulas. Several formulas are provided for estimating sample sizes needed for different study designs like descriptive studies and studies estimating a mean or proportion. Steps for using the formulas are outlined.
The document discusses methods for determining sample sizes in qualitative and quantitative studies. For qualitative studies, the sample size is usually small and taken until theoretical saturation is reached. Judgment sampling is most common. For quantitative studies, sample size is determined based on the level of precision, confidence level, population variability, and external validity. Formulas can be used to calculate sample sizes for proportions, with corrections for finite populations. Software can also assist with determining quantitative sample sizes based on study details.
Sensitivity and specificity are measures used to evaluate how well a medical test detects a disease. Sensitivity refers to the percentage of sick people who test positive, while specificity refers to the percentage of healthy people who test negative. In an example evaluating a test on 100 people where 30 had a disease, the test correctly identified 25 sick people and incorrectly identified 5 as healthy, for a sensitivity of 25/30. It correctly identified 68 healthy people and incorrectly identified 2 as sick, for a specificity of 68/70.
This document describes a cross-sectional study and its methodology. A cross-sectional study involves collecting data on exposure and outcome variables from a population at a single point in time. The document discusses the differences between descriptive and analytical cross-sectional studies. Descriptive studies measure prevalence, while analytical studies test associations between exposures and outcomes. The document provides examples of cross-sectional study design, biases, advantages, and guidelines for evaluating validity.
This document provides an overview of cross-sectional studies, including what they are, their uses, methodology, advantages, and disadvantages. A cross-sectional study involves observing a population at a single point in time to determine prevalence of disease. It is a quick and inexpensive way to describe characteristics of a population and identify associations between variables. However, it cannot determine causation due to its observational nature.
The document defines key epidemiological measures used to describe disease occurrence and impact, including prevalence, incidence, rates, and ratios. It provides examples of how to calculate and interpret these measures. The document concludes that prevalence describes the current disease burden, while incidence provides information on the risk of developing disease over time and is thus better suited for etiological studies.
The document provides an overview of blood transfusion, including donor selection, blood components and their indications, pre-transfusion handling, administration principles, massive transfusion, autologous transfusion, complications and their management, and blood substitutes. Donor selection involves medical history screening and health assessments. Key blood components discussed are packed red blood cells, platelet concentrates, fresh frozen plasma, and cryoprecipitate. Proper storage, grouping, compatibility testing and administration procedures are outlined to ensure safety. Complications can be immediate or delayed, including infections transmitted and reactions to plasma proteins. Blood substitutes under development aim to replace functions of plasma, red cells and platelets.
The document discusses various measures used to assess the strength and nature of associations between variables in epidemiological studies. It describes difference measures like absolute risk and ratio measures like relative risk and odds ratio. It explains how relative risk is calculated in cohort studies and how odds ratio is used as a measure of association in case-control studies. The relationship between relative risk and odds ratio is also covered.
Screening tests aim to identify unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals. They differ from diagnostic tests in that they are applied to groups rather than individuals, use a single criterion, and are less accurate. Validity refers to a test's accuracy while reliability is its precision on repeat tests. Sensitivity measures a test's ability to identify true positives, and specificity measures its ability to identify true negatives. Screening programs must consider factors like disease burden, test characteristics, and whether early detection improves outcomes.
This document discusses survival analysis techniques. It begins with an overview of survival, censoring, and the need for survival analysis when not all patients have died or had the event of interest. It then describes the key techniques of life tables/actuarial analysis and the Kaplan-Meier method. Life tables involve constructing a hypothetical cohort and estimating survival at different ages based on mortality rates. The Kaplan-Meier method is commonly used to illustrate survival curves and gives partial credit to censored observations. A modified life table is also presented to analyze survival outcomes in different treatment groups.
The ppt is a short description about how to ascertain the validity, ie; sensitivity and specificity of a screening test as well as their predictive powers. you can also find the technique to ascertain the best possible screening test through the help of an ROC curve...
This document provides an overview of cohort studies. It defines a cohort study as an analytical study that observes groups over time to determine the frequency of disease among those with and without an exposure. Key features discussed include cohorts being identified prior to disease appearance and the study proceeding from cause to effect. Prospective, retrospective, and ambidirectional cohort study designs are described. Steps of cohort studies include selection of study subjects, obtaining exposure data, comparing exposed and unexposed groups, follow up, and analysis of incidence rates.
1) Z-scores are a way to standardize scores on a test or other variable by expressing them in terms of the mean and standard deviation.
2) A z-score tells you how many standard deviations an individual score is above or below the mean.
3) Standardizing scores using z-scores allows direct comparisons of scores even when tests or variables have different means and standard deviations.
These annotated slides will help you interpret an OR or RR in clinical terms. Please download these slides and view them in PowerPoint so you can view the annotations describing each slide.
This document discusses disease screening and provides information on various aspects of screening programs and tests. It defines screening as actively searching for unrecognized disease in apparently healthy individuals using simple tests. The key points are:
- Screening is part of secondary prevention and aims to detect diseases early when they may be still curable. It involves testing populations, not individuals with symptoms.
- An ideal screening test is both highly sensitive and specific, but in practice these factors typically have an inverse relationship. Sensitivity and specificity can be adjusted by changing the test cutoff criteria.
- For a screening program to be effective, the disease must be an important health problem that can be detected early and treated effectively to improve outcomes. The screening test
- Cluster randomization trials are experiments where intact social units like medical practices, communities, or hospitals are randomly assigned to intervention groups rather than independent individuals. This is done when the intervention is naturally applied at a cluster level or to avoid treatment contamination between groups.
- Challenges of cluster randomization trials include having a unit of randomization that differs from the unit of analysis and reduced power due to intracluster correlation. Statistical methods like mixed models that account for clustering are needed to properly analyze results.
- Proper sample size calculations are also more complex in cluster randomization trials due to the need to adjust for the intracluster correlation coefficient and design effect. Ensuring enough clusters are enrolled is important to maintain adequate power
This document discusses various tools used to measure health indicators, including rates, ratios, and proportions. It provides definitions and examples of different types of rates that are used as mortality and morbidity indicators, such as crude death rate, specific death rates, infant mortality rate, and prevalence. These rates are calculated using a numerator (e.g. number of deaths) and denominator (e.g. population size), and provide information about the health status and needs of a population. Measuring these indicators helps health planners to assess health care needs, allocate resources, and evaluate programs.
SHOCK - PATHOPHYSIOLOGY, TYPES, APPROACH, TREATMENT.DR K TARUN RAO
1. Shock is defined as a state of poor tissue perfusion and cellular metabolism due to circulatory failure and hypoperfusion.
2. The main causes of shock include hypovolemic, cardiogenic, septic, anaphylactic, neurogenic, and respiratory etiologies.
3. The pathophysiology of shock involves a low cardiac output state leading to vasoconstriction and redistribution of blood flow away from non-vital organs to preserve perfusion of vital organs. Persistent shock can progress to cellular damage, organ dysfunction, and death.
Here are the calculations of IMR using the four different methods described in the document:
1. Conventional method:
IMR = (9835 + 9769) / 197003 + 198016 x 1000 = 49.7
2. Numerator adjustment method (f=0.3):
IMR = 0.3x9835 + 0.7x9769 / 191998 + 0.3x197003 + 0.7x198016 x 1000 = 49.7
3. Denominator adjustment method (f=0.3):
IMR = 9835 + 9769 / 0.3x191998 + 0.7x197003 + 0.3x198016 x
This document discusses different measures of morbidity including frequency, duration, and severity. Frequency is measured by incidence and prevalence. Incidence refers to new cases in a defined time period, while prevalence refers to all current cases. Duration is measured by disability rate and severity by case fatality rate. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating incidence rate, point prevalence, and period prevalence. It also discusses factors that influence prevalence and the relationship between incidence and prevalence.
GROUP 1 biostatistics ,sample size and epid.pptxEmma910932
The document discusses sample size determination in epidemiological studies. It defines key terms like sample, sample size, and reasons for determining sample size such as allowing for appropriate analysis and providing an accurate level of precision. Methods for determining sample size discussed include using the entire population (census), published sample sizes, and formulas. Several formulas are provided for estimating sample sizes needed for different study designs like descriptive studies and studies estimating a mean or proportion. Steps for using the formulas are outlined.
The document discusses methods for determining sample sizes in qualitative and quantitative studies. For qualitative studies, the sample size is usually small and taken until theoretical saturation is reached. Judgment sampling is most common. For quantitative studies, sample size is determined based on the level of precision, confidence level, population variability, and external validity. Formulas can be used to calculate sample sizes for proportions, with corrections for finite populations. Software can also assist with determining quantitative sample sizes based on study details.
This document discusses determining appropriate sample sizes for research studies. It covers key concepts like the relationship between sample size, accuracy, and sampling error. The confidence interval approach is presented as a method for calculating sample sizes based on desired confidence levels, population variability, and margin of error. Formulas for sample size, margin of error, and small population adjustments are provided. Examples show how to apply the concepts and calculate sample sizes for different research scenarios. Practical considerations like estimating variability and determining acceptable error are also addressed.
This document discusses the key steps in developing a sampling methodology:
1. Defining the target population and sampling units.
2. Creating a sampling frame from the target population.
3. Choosing a sampling method, either probability or non-probability.
4. Determining an appropriate sample size based on factors like population size, desired accuracy, and research budget.
5. Developing a sampling plan to guide sample selection and replacement of unavailable units.
6. Finally, selecting the actual sample from the sampling frame according to the chosen method.
This document discusses the key steps in developing a sampling methodology:
1. Defining the target population and sampling units.
2. Creating a sampling frame from the target population.
3. Choosing a sampling method, either probability or non-probability.
4. Determining an appropriate sample size based on factors like population size, desired accuracy, and research budget.
5. Developing a sampling plan to guide sample selection and fieldwork procedures.
6. Finally, selecting the actual sample elements from the sampling frame using the chosen method.
This document discusses determining appropriate sample sizes for research studies. It outlines key points about sample sizes, including that sample size determines accuracy but not representativeness. The confidence interval approach to determining sample size is explained, using a formula that requires estimating variability, acceptable margin of error, and confidence level. Practical considerations like estimating variability and determining an acceptable margin of error are discussed. Other sample size determination methods beyond the confidence interval approach are also outlined. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to use the formula and calculate an appropriate sample size.
This document discusses sample design and the steps involved in determining an appropriate sample. It defines key terms like population, sample, sampling frame, and outlines different sampling techniques. It emphasizes the importance of sample size and how to calculate it using confidence intervals in order to achieve the desired level of accuracy and confidence in results. Sources of error like sampling error and non-sampling error are also explained.
This document discusses sample size determination and sampling techniques. It covers the differences between qualitative and quantitative studies. For qualitative studies, the sample size is usually small until the point of theoretical saturation is reached. The sample should represent key characteristics of the population. For quantitative studies, sample size is determined based on the desired level of precision, confidence level, population size, and variability in attributes. Several strategies for determining sample size are presented, including using published tables, formulas like the Cochran equation, and imitating similar study sample sizes. Stratified sampling techniques like proportional and optimum allocation of samples across strata are also summarized.
This document discusses sampling procedures in quantitative research. It defines key terms like population, sample, sample size, and sampling frame. It discusses calculating sample size using Slovin's formula and designing a sampling plan. It also covers probability sampling techniques like simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling. The document provides examples to illustrate each sampling technique.
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
4 Inferential Statistics IV - April 7 2014.pdfBijayThapa30
This document discusses sampling distribution, standard error, and sample size. It explains that sampling distribution of means refers to the distribution of sample means when multiple samples are taken from a population. The standard error of the mean measures how far the sample means are likely to be from the true population mean. As sample size increases, the standard error decreases. A larger sample size is needed to ensure the sampling distribution approximates a normal distribution. Sample size calculations can be done using means or proportions based on the standard error.
This document discusses factors to consider when determining sample size for statistical studies. It notes that sample size is usually based on the study's objective and should be stated in the study protocol. Key factors in determining sample size include estimates of population standard deviation, acceptable sampling error levels, and desired confidence levels. Several methods are described for calculating sample size, including traditional statistical models and Bayesian models. The document also discusses concepts like sampling distributions of means and proportions, and factors that affect sample size calculations for estimating proportions, such as specifying acceptable error levels, confidence levels, and population proportion estimates.
This document discusses sample size determination and calculation. It defines sample size as the subset of a population chosen for a study to make inferences about the total population. The key factors in determining sample size are the desired level of accuracy, allowing for appropriate analysis, and validity of significance tests. The document provides formulas and methods for calculating sample size for different study designs and populations, including using formulas, readymade tables, nomograms, and computer software. Accurately determining sample size is essential for research.
- Sample size should be neither too small nor too large, but rather an optimal size that adequately represents the population. It can be calculated using factors like availability of funds, time, nature of study, and sampling technique.
- There are two main approaches to determining sample size: one based on precision and confidence level using formulas, and one based on Bayesian statistics. Effect size indicates how meaningful a relationship or group difference is, and can be small, medium, or large. It is calculated in various ways depending on the statistical test.
The document provides an overview of research process module 2, which covers topics related to sampling design and methods. It defines key terms like population, sample, sampling, random and non-random sampling. It then describes various probability sampling techniques like simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, and multi-stage sampling. It also discusses non-probability sampling techniques like convenience sampling and quota sampling. The document provides details on when and how to apply these various sampling methods.
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
This document provides an overview of sampling concepts and methods. It defines key terms like population, sample, sampling frame, sampling error, and non-sampling error. It discusses the steps in sample design including defining the population, identifying the sampling frame, selecting a sampling method/technique, and determining sample size. Probability and non-probability sampling methods are introduced. Practical considerations for determining an optimal sample size are outlined. The goal of sampling is to make inferences about a population from a representative subset or sample.
Census
Everyone in population
Eg. All Cambodian residents
Population
is a set of persons (or objects) having a common observable characteristic.
the entire collection of units about which we would like information
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Sample
is a representative subject (subgroup) of a population.
the collection of units we actually measure
Example:
If we want to know many persons in a community
have quit smoking or
have health insurance or
plan to vote for a certain candidate,
Statistical inference is the process by which we draw conclusions about a population from data collected on a sample.
In medical research
Population
All patients candidate for treatment
Sample
All patients candidate for treatment who volunteer for your study
Infer results from volunteers (sample) to other candidates for the same treatment (population).
We usually obtain information on an appropriate sample of the community and generalize from it to the entire population.
The way the sample is selected, not its size, determines whether we may draw appropriate inferences about a population.
The primary reason for selecting a sample from a population is to draw inferences about that population.
Statistical inference is the process by which we infer
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3. SAMPLING PROCEDURES
• What is a Sample?
The sample of a study is simply the
participants in a study. Part of the
population to be studied.
• What is Sampling?
Sampling is the process whereby a
researcher chooses her sample.
4. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Sampling Process
1. Identify the population of interest.
A population is the group of people that you want
to research on.
For example, Brooke wants to know how much
stress college students experience during finals.
Her population is every college student in the world
because that's who she's interested in. Of course,
there's no way that Brooke can feasibly study every
college student in the world, so she moves on to
the next step.
5. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 2. Specify a sampling frame.
A sampling frame is the group of people from which
you will draw your sample.
For example, Brooke might decide that her sampling
frame is every student at the university where she
works.
Notice that a sampling frame is not as large as the
population, but it's still a pretty big group of people.
Brooke still won't be able to study every single
student at her university, but that's a good place
from which to draw her sample.
6. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 3. Specify a sampling method.
There are basically two ways to choose a sample
from a sampling frame: randomly (probability) or
non-randomly (non-probability).
There are benefits to both. Basically, if your
sampling frame is approximately the same
demographic makeup as your population, you
probably want to randomly select your sample,
perhaps by flipping a coin or drawing names out of
a hat.
7. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 4. Determine the sample size.
• In general, larger samples are better, but they
also require more time and effort to manage.
• If Brooke ends up having to go through 1,000
surveys, it will take her more time than if she
only has to go through 10 surveys.
• But the results of her study will be stronger with
1,000 surveys, so she (like all researchers) has to
make choices and find a balance between what
will give her good data and what is practical.
8. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 5. Implement the plan.
• Once you know your population, sampling
frame, sampling method, and sample size, you
can use all that information to choose your
sample.
9. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• NOTE: 1. To be able to estimate the
sample size one needs to have the
population to be studies and set:
The degree of confidence. Normally set
at 95%
The margin of error. Normally set at 5%
Skewness Level. Normally set at 50%
10. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• The degree of confidence/confidence interval (CI)/
confidence level : refers to the percentage of all
possible samples that can be expected to include the
true population parameter.
• For example, suppose all possible samples were
selected from the same population, and a
confidence interval were computed for each sample.
• A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the
confidence intervals would include the true
population parameter.
11. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• The margin of error: a small amount that is allowed
for in case of miscalculation or change of
circumstances.
For example, a researcher might report that 50% of
voters will choose the UKAWA candidate in 2015
elections.
To indicate the quality of the survey result, he might
add that the margin of error is +5%, with a
confidence level of 90%.
This means that if the survey were repeated many
times with different samples, the true percentage of
UKAWA voters would fall within the margin of error
90% of the time.
12. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Skewness Level: Is the response distribution
• A symmetrical distribution/normal distribution has a
skewness of zero.
• If the distribution is symmetric then the mean is equal
to the median and the distribution will have zero
skewness.If, in addition, the distribution is unimodal,
then the mean = median = mode
• A distribution with a long tail to the right (higher values)
has a positive skew.
• A distribution with a long tail to the left (lower values)
has a negative skew.
14. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Note 2: All the sample size formula and
software will try to estimate these three
parameters.
• Note 3: Manipulation of any of these
parameters will result to change in the sample
size.
• Example: Visit the
http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
web page and try manipulating the
parameters.
15. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Sample size Determination
• There are 3 basic techniques for
determining a sample size. These are:
Non-mathematical/non-
scientific/convenient method
Using Statistical Formulae/Scientific
Statistical Tables/Scientific
16. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Statistical Formulae to determine Sample
Size
• 1. Formula by Cochran (1963) for large
populations (Exceeding or equal to 10,000)
2
2
e
PqZ
n =
17. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 2. Formula by Fisher et al. (1991) for large
populations (Exceeding or equal to 10,000)
2
2
d
PqZ
n =
18. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• NOTE: The two formula are similar.
• Where:
• n = is the sample size required;
• Z = Standard normal deviation, set at 1.96 (or 2)
corresponding to 95% confidence level;
• P = Is % of population estimated to have a
particular characteristics if not known use 50%;
• q = 1-P;
• d/e = degree of accuracy desired, set at 0.05 or
0.02
19. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• EXAMPLE 1: Suppose we wish to evaluate a
district-wide extension program in which
farmers were encouraged to adopt a new
practice. Assume there is a large population
but that we do not know the variability in the
proportion that will adopt the practice;
therefore, assume p= 0.5 (maximum
variability). Furthermore, suppose we desire a
95% confidence level and ±5% precision. Using
Fisher et al. (1991) formula what is the desired
Sample Size?
20. Solution of Example 1
2
2
d
PqZ
n = 2
2
)05.0(
)5.0)(5.0()96.1(
=n
)0025.0(
)25.0)(8416.3(
=n
)0025.0(
)9604.0(
=n
16.384=n or 385=n
=
=
21. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• 3. Cochran (1963)/ Fisher et al. (1991) sample
size determination formulae for populations
less than 10,000, is given below (where: n=
sample size, N = population):
N
n
n
n
)1(
1
−
+
=
22. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Example 2: Suppose our evaluation of farmers’
adoption of the new practice only affected
2,000 farmers. The sample size that would now
be necessary is:
2000
)1385(
1
385
−
+
=n =
2000
)384(
1
385
+
=n
192.01
385
+
=n=
9865772.322=n 323=
23. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Sampling Techniques
• There are two main sampling strategies:
i.e.
• a) Probability- all items/participants have
equal chance of being selected.
• b) Non-probability-items/participants
have unequal chance of being selected.
24. Sampling Procedures Cont.
• Probability Sampling Techniques
• The techniques include:
Simple random sampling (SRS),
Stratifies Sampling,
Area/Cluster Sampling,
Systematic Sampling.