Women face barriers to adopting small-scale irrigation technologies that differ from men's barriers. To ensure women benefit equally, technologies must be designed with women's needs and preferences in mind, such as meeting multiple uses and saving labor. Information about technologies must reach women through their own networks. Adoption support is also needed, like access to credit, land, and water resources. Close monitoring after adoption is critical to confirm women actually control and benefit from the technologies and do not experience increased burdens from use. Without consideration of these gender issues, irrigation technologies risk disproportionately benefiting men over women.

1. Making small-scale irrigation
technology work for women
Sophie Theis
Senior Research Analyst
International Food Policy Research Institute

2. Why is small-scale irrigation not working for women?
 There is a gender gap in the adoption and use of irrigation
technologies
 Women do not have equal opportunity to adopt and benefit from
irrigation technology as men do

3. Women and irrigation: What are the linkages?
 Women play a critical role in
agricultural production (~43% of the
labor force in developing countries),
and overall, women shoulder a
greater labor burden than men, due
to unpaid household responsibilities
(Doss 2011)
 Women need irrigation:
oTo improve their agricultural
production
oTo reduce drudgery/save time
oTo produce nutritious food in the
dry season

4. Small-scale irrigation can help women to:
 Generate income through higher value produce, higher yields, and an
extended growing season
 Grow more nutritious crops
 Withstand weather variability and climate stresses
 Access water supply for multiple purposes in addition to crops (drinking,
cleaning, livestock, etc)
 Improve family health and reduced burden of caring for the sick
 Reduce time and energy burden of collecting and applying water
(Domenech 2015; Passarelli et al. 2018)

5. Irrigation…for which women?
 Women in female-headed households
o Less access to resources and labor, but less
restrictions on decision-making power and mobility
 Women in male-headed households
oHouseholds do not share all resources and income
equally, so women in male-headed households do
not necessarily benefit from irrigation (e.g., irrigation
used for men’s plots, not women’s plots)
o Research shows women’s control over resources
can increase household expenditures on children’s
health and education (Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003)

6. Why is there a gender gap in irrigation adoption?
 Women face more barriers and
different kinds of barriers to
adopting irrigation technology than
men do.
 We want to understand what these
gender-based barriers are so that
we can remove them.

7. Discussion [pause the powerpoint]
PART 1
 What factors do you think make it difficult for women to adopt irrigation
technology?
o How are these factors different for women in male-headed vs. female-headed
households?
 Take 5-10 minutes to write down your ideas.
PART 2
 Now, turn to the person next to you and share your ideas.
 Together, for each idea you generated, ask yourselves, why does this barrier
exist?
 Write down possible explanations.
Barriers to women’s
technology adoption
Why does this barrier
exist?

9. Design
• What are
women’s
needs and
preferences?
Dissemination
• What barriers do
men and women
face in learning
about the
technology?
Adoption
• What barriers
do men and
women face in
adopting the
technology?
Use
• How does the
use of
technology
impact men
and women?
Technology design, dissemination, adoption, and use
Adapted from Theis et al. 2018

10. Design
• What are
women’s
needs and
preferences?
Dissemination
• What barriers do
men and women
face in learning
about the
technology?
Adoption
• What barriers
do men and
women face in
adopting the
technology?
Use
• How does the
use of
technology
impact men
and women?
Technology design, dissemination, adoption, and use
Meets women’s needs

11. Design phase
 What are women’s needs and preferences
regarding the design of the technology?
oWhere, when, and for what purposes do
women want irrigation and/or water
technologies?
oSuitability for multiple uses of water
oPortability/location
oAppropriate scale
oWhat are women willing to pay?
oOperational costs (fuel, maintenance
requirements, human energy needed)
oFinancing options (purchase vs. rental,
individual vs. shared use)
oWhat are social norms about women using
certain technologies?

12. Men and women may have different priorities
 In ILSSI research, women
preferred technologies that:
oSave labor
oServe multiple purposes
oFunction during multiple
seasons
oAre installed near the
home
oAre suitable for home
gardens Source: Schmitter et al. 2016
http://ilssi.tamu.edu

13. Design
• What are
women’s
needs and
preferences?
Dissemination
• What barriers do
women face in
learning about
the technology?
Adoption
• What barriers
do women face
in adopting the
technology?
Use
• How does the
use of
technology
impact women
and men?
Technology design, dissemination, adoption, and use
Info reaches womenMeets women’s needs

14. Dissemination
 How can information about new
technologies reach men and
women?
o Women aren’t always participating
in farmer field schools, trainings,
or producer groups
o Often do not own cell phones
o Less interaction with agricultural
extension officers, lead farmers,
irrigation equipment dealers
 Instead, we need to meet women
where they are
 Tap into women’s networks (women’s
groups, frontline health workers,
women lead farmers) and build trust

15. Design
• What are
women’s
needs and
preferences?
Dissemination
• What barriers do
women face in
learning about
the technology?
Adoption
• What barriers
do women face
in adopting the
technology?
Use
• How does the
use of
technology
impact women
and men?
Technology design, dissemination, adoption, and use
Women have resources to
purchase
Info reaches womenMeets women’s needs

16. Technology adoption
 What resources do women need to be able to buy* the technology?
oAccessible and appropriate credit
oAccess to and ideally control over irrigable land
oAccess to water (afford to drill a well or negotiate water within a farmer-
led irrigation scheme)
oAccess to labor
oDecision-making power within the household to make the purchase
oSufficiently profitable production to pay back any credit (motor pumps
or solar pumps, however, have a payback period that is beyond a
single season)
*Some tech may be shared by groups; rented; given as a gift or transfer

17. Design
• What are
women’s
needs and
preferences?
Dissemination
• What barriers do
women face in
learning about
the technology?
Adoption
• What barriers
do men and
women face in
adopting the
technology?
Use
• How does the
use of
technology
impact women
and men?
Technology design, dissemination, adoption, and use
Women have resources to
purchase
Women benefit
from the tech
Info reaches womenMeets women’s needs

18. Gender-related impacts after adopting technology
Household-level
 How are men and women within the same household affected differently
by technology adoption?
o Workload around irrigation?
o Who makes decisions about use of technology?
o Who controls income generated?
Community-level
 How are different groups of people within a community affected differently
by technology adoption?
o Wage labor displacement?
o Change in control over land? (Whitehead 1998)
oChange in water access for some members of the community?

19. Benefiting from the use of irrigation technology
 What is needed to increase the likelihood that irrigation will be
profitable?
oAccess to market to buy inputs and sell product
oBusiness skills
oFinancial services
oAccess to information and extension services
 Profitable for whom?
oDo women have any control over the income that is generated by
irrigation?

20. Quotes from women in Tanzania
“On ownership, it’s father [my husband], because he signs the
sacks at the warehouse and even sells, but you won’t even
know of the amounts, whether he gives you a fake calculation
you just have to accept.”
“…you can’t go daily to check them [the sacks], since you
aren’t the one who signed for it inside there, because his
fellow men will think of me oppositely, so I just remain at
home.”
Theis et al. 2018. What happens after technology adoption? Gendered
aspects of small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania

21. If you want irrigation technology to benefit women, beware
of risks:
1. Women do not necessarily have access to and control over the profits
of irrigated production
2. Transferring technologies to women does not guarantee their control
3. Small-scale irrigation technologies can increase women’s time burden
4. More powerful actors can appropriate land, income streams, or
water from women after making irrigation investments

22. Key steps that irrigation engineers and policymakers can
take to ensure women benefit from irrigation
 Design technology with women that meets their needs, studying their
priorities and preferences
 Ensure marketing, dissemination, trainings reach women so that they
learn about the technology and how it is used
 Support women’s ability to purchase technology through access to
appropriate subsidies, credit, groups
 Help secure women’s access to and control over irrigable land and water
for irrigation
 Monitor and evaluate gender-related outcomes after technology
adoption, within the household and within the community (to understand
if women are reached, benefit and are empowered by the technology)

23. Thank you!
Sophie Theis
s.theis@cgiar.org

24. Discussion Questions
1. In your experience, what type of irrigation do men and women most
commonly practice? Why do you think this is?
2. What are roles have you observed men and women playing in irrigation?
3. What are examples of interventions and policies that could help women
benefit from irrigation?
4. What part of the technology adoption cycle (design, dissemination,
adoption, use) do you work on, in your current role?
oWhat partners could you bring in to make change in the other stages?
5. What data does your organization currently collect to monitor and
evaluate impact? How could data collection be adapted to better capture
gender differences?

25. Further resources
 Journal articles:
o Theis et al. 2018. What happens after technology adoption? Gendered aspects of small-scale
irrigation in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania
o Passarelli et al. 2018. Evaluating the pathways from small-scale irrigation to dietary diversity:
Evidence from Ethiopia and Tanzania
o Domenech 2015. Is reliable water access the solution to undernutrition? A review of the potential of
irrigation to solve nutrition and gender gaps in Africa South of the Sahara
o Njuki et al. 2014. A qualitative assessment of gender and irrigation technology in Kenya and
Tanzania.
o Doss 2001. Designing Agricultural Technology for African Women Farmers: Lessons From 25 Years
of Experience
 Guidance for policymakers and practitioners:
o Theis et al. 2018. Considering gender when promoting small-scale irrigation technologies: Guidance
for inclusive irrigation interventions
o Theis et al. 2017. Integrating gender into small-scale irrigation.
o Cultural Practice 2017. Assessing How Agricultural Technologies Can Change Gender Dynamics
and Food Security
 Research programs:
o REACH
o Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation