This document discusses the ethics of lying and secrecy. It presents several perspectives on when lying may or may not be justified, from an absolute prohibition on lying to consequentialist views that lying can be acceptable if it causes more benefit than harm. It also distinguishes between lies, secrets, and privacy. St. Augustine proposed a hierarchy of lies ranging from most harmful to least harmful. Utilitarians believe the consequences of an act determine its morality, so lying could be acceptable if it helps more than it harms. Kant argued lying is never justified because it undermines trust which is necessary for society. The document explores these philosophical debates and how they relate to concepts of secrecy and privacy.

1. Lying:Moral choice in public and private life

2. Centrality of TruthfullnessRespectTrust “Respect for the word—to employ it with scrupulous care and incorruptible heartfelt love of truth—is essential if there is to be any growth in society or in the human race.” Dag Hammarskjold“If there is no confidence in the truthfulness of others, is there any way to assess their fairness, their intentions to help or to harm? How then can they be trusted? Whatever matters to human beings, trust is the atmosphere in which it thrives.”Sissela Bok

3. 1. Lies in religious teaching.2. Lies that harm others and help no one.3. Lies that harm others and help someone.4. Lies told for the pleasure of lying.St. Augustine’s Hierarchy of Lies [8]

4. 5. Lies told to “please others in smooth discourse.”6. Lies that harm no one and that help someone.7. Lies that harm no one and that save someone’s life.8. Lies that harm no one and that save someone’s ‘purity.’

5. Directs our attention to the consequences of lies rather than the inherent qualities of lies themselvesThe Utilitarian View: ConsequentialismJeremy Bentham stated that:

6. Falsehood, taken by itself, not accompanied by other circumstances or causing any ill effects “can NEVER, upon the principles of utility, constitute an offense at all”

7. In other words, lying is NOT a bad thing if nobody is hurt by it or if it causes more happiness than hurt.Added the sense that the undesirable consequences of lying are often considerableThe trustworthiness of human assertion is essential to social well-being and human happiness.Act Utilitarianism vs Rule UtilitarianismUtilitarianism: John Stuart Mill

8. Categorical imperative: “Act only on those maxims that you could at the same time will to be a universal law.”Kant: Deontological ethicsNon-consequentialist: regardless of the reason, one must not lie because universal lying would be self defeating… communication would break downRule based, and justice based

9. A negative weight should be attached to every lie: lying requires explanation; truth does notThe liar bears a burden of proof that his or her lie is necessary as a last resort: trust in veracity is a foundation of the relations among human beings—when shattered, institutions collapseTherefore, acceptable alternatives to lying that accomplish the same end are to be sought and, if discovered, chosenSissela Bok: The Principle of Veracity

10. St. Augustine’s lies in religious teachingSatan the “father of the lie” (I John 2.22) denial of God equals a lieWhen issues around what is a permissible lie and what not—the issue [may] became when it was alright to keep the truth from others Secrets, Sissela BokBut, if there is a Hierarchy of truth…

11. A secret is:something studiously hiddenA thing unknown; something not yet discoveredPrivacy, secrecy; invisible or undiscovered state Samuel Johnson in his Dictionary: “secret”Secrecy

12. Concealment…through codes or disguises or camouflage…as in trade secrecy or professional confidentialityConcepts of sacredness, intimacy, silence, prohibition, furtiveness and deception influence how we define and think of secrecy Privacy is a fundamentally tied to secrecySecrecy

13. The condition of being protected from unwanted access by others—either physical access, personal information, or attentionPrivacyPersonal space and territorialityDoors, fencesRules of etiquetteVeils, clothingErving Goffman describes “total institutions” as places where diminishment or complete annihilation of privacy occurs: mental hospitals, prison