This document provides instructions and questions for a semester test in Life Science 1A FET at the APK Campus. It includes 8 multiple choice questions worth 1 mark each, 10 short answer questions worth 2 marks each defining biological terms, 8 short answer questions worth 1 mark each providing definitions or short descriptions, 18 marks worth of questions distinguishing between glucose and glycogen, identifying and describing properties of saturated fat, naming components of nucleotides and describing DNA, 8 marks describing properties of water important for life, and 22 marks involving identifying and labeling structures in animal and plant cells, describing cellular processes, and explaining mitosis and cancer.
This document provides a review of key concepts from chemistry of life, cell biology, genetics, and evolution. It defines organic compounds and the six elements that make up living things. It describes the four major categories of organic molecules and their structures and functions. It also reviews cell structures, organelles, and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Genetic concepts like DNA, genes, mutations, and Mendelian genetics are summarized. Finally, it defines evolution by natural selection and provides evidence to support the theory of evolution.
This document provides an overview of the contents of an A2 Biology unit on control systems. The unit covers topics including the human nervous system, nerve cells, the nerve impulse, synapses, receptors, muscle, animal and plant responses, control of heart rate, the hormone system, homeostasis, and molecular genetics. The genetics section will discuss topics such as the genetic code, protein synthesis, gene mutations, stem cells, control of gene expression, and biotechnology techniques including DNA sequencing and genetically modified organisms.
This document summarizes the process of protein synthesis, which occurs in two main stages - transcription and translation. In transcription, messenger RNA (mRNA) is produced from a segment of DNA in the nucleus. The mRNA then acts as a messenger to carry the genetic code to the cytoplasm. In translation, the mRNA code is read by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain through the attachment of amino acids. The genetic code is deciphered through codons on the mRNA that each specify a particular amino acid. This results in the final synthesized protein.
Biotechnology and recombinant dna technique(UOG)AhmedMushtaq15
Biotechnology uses biology to solve problems and make useful products. Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different organisms to create new genetic combinations. The key steps are: (1) isolating the gene of interest, (2) cutting the gene and vector with restriction enzymes, (3) inserting the gene into the vector, (4) transforming host cells with the modified vector, and (5) expressing the gene to produce the desired product. Biotechnology has applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry by allowing the large-scale production of drugs, genetically modified crops, and industrial chemicals.
The document provides information about an upcoming AP Biology exam, including:
- The exam will take place on May 8 from 8:00-11:00 AM. It will consist of multiple choice and free response questions.
- The exam will cover 4 big ideas: evolution, biological systems utilize energy/matter, living systems store/transmit information, and complex interactions in biological systems.
- The document then provides a detailed review of content including chemistry of life, cellular structure/function, cellular energetics, and molecular genetics.
This document provides an overview of Module 1 - Core Principles for an AQA(B) AS biology course. It includes the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document outlines the contents and topics to be covered in Module 1, including biological molecules, cells, physiology and disease. It provides a high-level summary of the main macromolecules that make up living things - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The first pages provide more detailed information on the structures and properties of carbohydrates, lipids and the chemical bonds involved in forming these macromolecules.
This document provides an overview of the AQA(B) AS Unit 2 biology specification and course content. It includes summaries of key topics such as polysaccharides, gas exchange, the circulatory system, water transport in plants, DNA structure and replication, gene expression, chromosomes, the cell cycle, meiosis and sexual reproduction, antibiotic resistance, classification, biodiversity, and causes of diversity. It also notes that the notes may be used freely by students and teachers and provides contact information for the author.
This document provides a review of key concepts from chemistry of life, cell biology, genetics, and evolution. It defines organic compounds and the six elements that make up living things. It describes the four major categories of organic molecules and their structures and functions. It also reviews cell structures, organelles, and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Genetic concepts like DNA, genes, mutations, and Mendelian genetics are summarized. Finally, it defines evolution by natural selection and provides evidence to support the theory of evolution.
This document provides an overview of the contents of an A2 Biology unit on control systems. The unit covers topics including the human nervous system, nerve cells, the nerve impulse, synapses, receptors, muscle, animal and plant responses, control of heart rate, the hormone system, homeostasis, and molecular genetics. The genetics section will discuss topics such as the genetic code, protein synthesis, gene mutations, stem cells, control of gene expression, and biotechnology techniques including DNA sequencing and genetically modified organisms.
This document summarizes the process of protein synthesis, which occurs in two main stages - transcription and translation. In transcription, messenger RNA (mRNA) is produced from a segment of DNA in the nucleus. The mRNA then acts as a messenger to carry the genetic code to the cytoplasm. In translation, the mRNA code is read by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain through the attachment of amino acids. The genetic code is deciphered through codons on the mRNA that each specify a particular amino acid. This results in the final synthesized protein.
Biotechnology and recombinant dna technique(UOG)AhmedMushtaq15
Biotechnology uses biology to solve problems and make useful products. Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different organisms to create new genetic combinations. The key steps are: (1) isolating the gene of interest, (2) cutting the gene and vector with restriction enzymes, (3) inserting the gene into the vector, (4) transforming host cells with the modified vector, and (5) expressing the gene to produce the desired product. Biotechnology has applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry by allowing the large-scale production of drugs, genetically modified crops, and industrial chemicals.
The document provides information about an upcoming AP Biology exam, including:
- The exam will take place on May 8 from 8:00-11:00 AM. It will consist of multiple choice and free response questions.
- The exam will cover 4 big ideas: evolution, biological systems utilize energy/matter, living systems store/transmit information, and complex interactions in biological systems.
- The document then provides a detailed review of content including chemistry of life, cellular structure/function, cellular energetics, and molecular genetics.
This document provides an overview of Module 1 - Core Principles for an AQA(B) AS biology course. It includes the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document outlines the contents and topics to be covered in Module 1, including biological molecules, cells, physiology and disease. It provides a high-level summary of the main macromolecules that make up living things - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The first pages provide more detailed information on the structures and properties of carbohydrates, lipids and the chemical bonds involved in forming these macromolecules.
This document provides an overview of the AQA(B) AS Unit 2 biology specification and course content. It includes summaries of key topics such as polysaccharides, gas exchange, the circulatory system, water transport in plants, DNA structure and replication, gene expression, chromosomes, the cell cycle, meiosis and sexual reproduction, antibiotic resistance, classification, biodiversity, and causes of diversity. It also notes that the notes may be used freely by students and teachers and provides contact information for the author.
Cellular responses to environmental signals in plants Huma Naaz Siddiqui
1. Plants have the ability to sense and respond to environmental stimuli like light, temperature, and moisture in order to increase their chances of survival and reproduction.
2. Cells in plants communicate with each other through the process of cell signaling, where a signaling cell produces signal molecules that are detected by target cells.
3. Plants have receptors on their cell membranes and inside their cells that detect signal molecules. The receptors then activate signal transduction pathways that convert the signals into cellular responses like flowering or dormancy.
This document provides an overview of microbial genetics concepts. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, chromosomes, and genomes. It describes the structure of DNA and the processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It explains how genetic material is inherited vertically but can also be transferred horizontally between organisms through transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Mechanisms of genetic regulation, mutation, and repair are also summarized. The document uses diagrams and tables to illustrate these fundamental concepts in microbial genetics.
Transcription is the process where information stored in DNA is copied into mRNA. This involves RNA polymerase adding nucleotides to the growing mRNA molecule in a 5' to 3' direction. In eukaryotes, nucleosomes help regulate transcription by modifying histone tails, which affects how tightly wound the DNA is. Post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA in eukaryotes include splicing of introns. Gene expression can be regulated by proteins binding to specific DNA sequences and by environmental factors that impact processes like DNA methylation and histone modification.
This document is a biology final exam for Mrs. Glemaud's class in 2010-2011. It contains 60 multiple choice questions testing students' knowledge of key biology concepts across several units, including cell structure and function, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, genetics, and mitosis. The questions cover topics such as the parts of the cell, organelle functions, energy production in cells, the cell cycle, Mendelian genetics, and inheritance of traits.
This document provides an introduction to studying DNA. It describes the structure and function of DNA, including the double helix structure formed by base pairing between nucleotides. It also differentiates between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA structure and regulation. Key aspects covered include DNA replication, bacterial culture techniques, plasmid vectors, operon regulation in prokaryotes, and gene expression in eukaryotes. The learning outcomes focus on understanding DNA structure and function, differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems, viral applications in genetic engineering, and gel electrophoresis techniques.
The document discusses humoral immunity and the complement system. It defines key terms and describes the three stages of humoral immunity: B cell maturation in the bone marrow, activation of B cells by antigens, and differentiation of activated B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells. It also explains the classical, alternative, and lectin pathways of complement system activation and how they converge in the formation of the membrane attack complex. Finally, it outlines the biological activities and regulation of the complement system.
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells that generate most of the cell's supply of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. They have an outer membrane and inner membrane, with the inner membrane forming infoldings called cristae. Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes and can replicate independently of the cell. They play a key role in cellular respiration by producing ATP from the oxidation of pyruvate and the citric acid cycle.
This document is an independent study thesis submitted by Shelby Kratt to partially fulfill requirements for an independent study in biology. The thesis aims to further investigate the role of arginine kinase (AK) in the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. The introduction provides background on phosphagen kinases, including their role in ATP buffering. It describes the arginine kinase lineage and discusses recent findings of bacterial arginine kinases, likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer. Previous work found that deletion of the AK gene in M. xanthus increased stress sensitivity and affected development. The thesis will transform the M. xanthus Δark mutant with the original M. xanthus AK gene and a horseshoe crab
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized by many authorities now. 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
Mitochondria Our body’s lifeline. Mitochondria are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer, and optimizing mitochondrial metabolism may be at the core of effective cancer treatment.
This document is about nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Descriptions of DNA replication and Protein Synthesis, its importance, together with their processes. The DNA Profiling and its uses.
The document discusses nucleic acids and their role in genetics. It begins by defining nucleic acids as important biopolymers that contain genetic information and facilitate its transfer between generations. It then describes the two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the full genetic code and resides in the nucleus, while RNA carries messages from DNA and has various functions. The document proceeds to discuss the composition, structure, and functions of nucleic acids in more detail.
This document discusses immune regulation and the complement system. It covers normal immune regulation factors like antigen availability and cytokines. It also discusses altered regulation and failures in self-tolerance that can lead to autoimmune diseases. The document then describes the complement system in detail, including the classical and alternative pathways that activate the C3 convertase and the final lytic pathway's role in destroying pathogens.
Information stored in DNA is copied onto mRNA through transcription. Transcription occurs from 5' to 3' in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells further modify mRNA after transcription through splicing and other processes. This increases the number of proteins that can be produced from a single gene. Gene expression is regulated by proteins binding to specific DNA sequences and the cell's environment.
The document discusses several key aspects of DNA structure and replication:
1. The Hershey-Chase experiment provided definitive evidence that DNA, not protein, carries the genetic material of organisms. They found that labeled viral DNA entered infected bacteria cells, while labeled viral proteins did not.
2. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography of DNA provided data that helped Watson and Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA. DNA is made of nucleotides with a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base.
3. DNA replication is semi-conservative and relies on complementary base pairing between DNA strands. It involves enzymes that unwind, separate, and replicate both DNA strands.
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
This document discusses mutagens and their actions. It defines mutagens as natural or human-made agents that can alter genetic material and induce mutation. There are three main types of mutagens: chemical mutagens, radiation, and biological mutagens. Chemical mutagens include base analogs, chemical modification agents like alkylating agents, and intercalating agents. Radiation mutagens can be ionizing or non-ionizing, such as UV radiation. Biological mutagens include viruses and transposable elements that can insert into DNA. Exposure to these mutagens may induce mutations by altering DNA structure.
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized now by many authorities. It includes: 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
In order for our organs to function properly, they require energy, and that energy is produced by the mitochondria (the power engine). Mitochondrial function is at the very heart of everything that occurs in our body. Mitochondria our body’s lifeline are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer. Optimizing mitochondrial function and preventing mitochondrial dysfunction is extremely important for health and disease prevention and may be at the core of effective cancer treatment. Important nutrients and co-factors for mitochondrial function include: all B vitamins, magnesium, omega-3 fat, CoQ10, acetyl L- carnitine, D-ribose, and alpha-lipoic acid. Exercise is also important for mitochondrial health and function
This document discusses cell signaling systems. It describes how cell communication begins with a receptor protein receiving an extracellular signal and converting it into an intracellular signal. It then outlines the main components of a signaling system, including ligands, receptors, and signal transduction pathways. It provides examples of different types of ligands and receptors, and how signals are transmitted and integrated within cells. Various signaling molecules and mechanisms are examined in detail, such as calcium signaling, growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters, and nitric oxide. The roles of cell signaling in processes like fertilization, apoptosis, and embryonic development are also summarized.
This document summarizes a chapter about nucleic acids and nucleotides from a biochemistry textbook. It discusses the key topics of:
1. Nucleic acids are large biomolecules made of nucleotides as monomers, with two main types being DNA and RNA. Nucleotides contain a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
2. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and thymine bases, while RNA contains ribose and uracil bases. They form base pairs to allow the strands to bind.
3. Nucleotides combine to form nucleic acids, and different types of RNA have important cellular functions like protein synthesis and gene regulation. The double helix structure of DNA
This document provides a review of key concepts from chemistry of life, cell biology, genetics, and evolution. It defines organic compounds and the six elements that make up living things. It describes the four major categories of organic molecules and their structures and functions. It also reviews cell structures, organelles, and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Genetic concepts like DNA, genes, mutations, and Mendelian genetics are summarized. Finally, it defines evolution by natural selection and provides evidence to support the theory of evolution.
This document provides notes on AQA GCSE Biology for Unit 2. It covers several topics:
- Cells and cell structures, including the structures and functions of plant, animal, yeast and bacterial cells.
- Tissues, organs and organ systems, explaining how cells differentiate and organize into tissues, organs, and systems to carry out functions.
- Photosynthesis, outlining the process by which plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
- Organisms and their environment, discussing physical factors that affect organisms and methods to collect quantitative data on populations and distributions.
- Proteins, explaining their structures and functions, including as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components.
Cellular responses to environmental signals in plants Huma Naaz Siddiqui
1. Plants have the ability to sense and respond to environmental stimuli like light, temperature, and moisture in order to increase their chances of survival and reproduction.
2. Cells in plants communicate with each other through the process of cell signaling, where a signaling cell produces signal molecules that are detected by target cells.
3. Plants have receptors on their cell membranes and inside their cells that detect signal molecules. The receptors then activate signal transduction pathways that convert the signals into cellular responses like flowering or dormancy.
This document provides an overview of microbial genetics concepts. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, chromosomes, and genomes. It describes the structure of DNA and the processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It explains how genetic material is inherited vertically but can also be transferred horizontally between organisms through transformation, transduction, and conjugation. Mechanisms of genetic regulation, mutation, and repair are also summarized. The document uses diagrams and tables to illustrate these fundamental concepts in microbial genetics.
Transcription is the process where information stored in DNA is copied into mRNA. This involves RNA polymerase adding nucleotides to the growing mRNA molecule in a 5' to 3' direction. In eukaryotes, nucleosomes help regulate transcription by modifying histone tails, which affects how tightly wound the DNA is. Post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA in eukaryotes include splicing of introns. Gene expression can be regulated by proteins binding to specific DNA sequences and by environmental factors that impact processes like DNA methylation and histone modification.
This document is a biology final exam for Mrs. Glemaud's class in 2010-2011. It contains 60 multiple choice questions testing students' knowledge of key biology concepts across several units, including cell structure and function, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, genetics, and mitosis. The questions cover topics such as the parts of the cell, organelle functions, energy production in cells, the cell cycle, Mendelian genetics, and inheritance of traits.
This document provides an introduction to studying DNA. It describes the structure and function of DNA, including the double helix structure formed by base pairing between nucleotides. It also differentiates between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA structure and regulation. Key aspects covered include DNA replication, bacterial culture techniques, plasmid vectors, operon regulation in prokaryotes, and gene expression in eukaryotes. The learning outcomes focus on understanding DNA structure and function, differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems, viral applications in genetic engineering, and gel electrophoresis techniques.
The document discusses humoral immunity and the complement system. It defines key terms and describes the three stages of humoral immunity: B cell maturation in the bone marrow, activation of B cells by antigens, and differentiation of activated B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells. It also explains the classical, alternative, and lectin pathways of complement system activation and how they converge in the formation of the membrane attack complex. Finally, it outlines the biological activities and regulation of the complement system.
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotic cells that generate most of the cell's supply of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. They have an outer membrane and inner membrane, with the inner membrane forming infoldings called cristae. Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes and can replicate independently of the cell. They play a key role in cellular respiration by producing ATP from the oxidation of pyruvate and the citric acid cycle.
This document is an independent study thesis submitted by Shelby Kratt to partially fulfill requirements for an independent study in biology. The thesis aims to further investigate the role of arginine kinase (AK) in the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. The introduction provides background on phosphagen kinases, including their role in ATP buffering. It describes the arginine kinase lineage and discusses recent findings of bacterial arginine kinases, likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer. Previous work found that deletion of the AK gene in M. xanthus increased stress sensitivity and affected development. The thesis will transform the M. xanthus Δark mutant with the original M. xanthus AK gene and a horseshoe crab
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized by many authorities now. 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
Mitochondria Our body’s lifeline. Mitochondria are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer, and optimizing mitochondrial metabolism may be at the core of effective cancer treatment.
This document is about nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Descriptions of DNA replication and Protein Synthesis, its importance, together with their processes. The DNA Profiling and its uses.
The document discusses nucleic acids and their role in genetics. It begins by defining nucleic acids as important biopolymers that contain genetic information and facilitate its transfer between generations. It then describes the two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the full genetic code and resides in the nucleus, while RNA carries messages from DNA and has various functions. The document proceeds to discuss the composition, structure, and functions of nucleic acids in more detail.
This document discusses immune regulation and the complement system. It covers normal immune regulation factors like antigen availability and cytokines. It also discusses altered regulation and failures in self-tolerance that can lead to autoimmune diseases. The document then describes the complement system in detail, including the classical and alternative pathways that activate the C3 convertase and the final lytic pathway's role in destroying pathogens.
Information stored in DNA is copied onto mRNA through transcription. Transcription occurs from 5' to 3' in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells further modify mRNA after transcription through splicing and other processes. This increases the number of proteins that can be produced from a single gene. Gene expression is regulated by proteins binding to specific DNA sequences and the cell's environment.
The document discusses several key aspects of DNA structure and replication:
1. The Hershey-Chase experiment provided definitive evidence that DNA, not protein, carries the genetic material of organisms. They found that labeled viral DNA entered infected bacteria cells, while labeled viral proteins did not.
2. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography of DNA provided data that helped Watson and Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA. DNA is made of nucleotides with a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous base.
3. DNA replication is semi-conservative and relies on complementary base pairing between DNA strands. It involves enzymes that unwind, separate, and replicate both DNA strands.
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
This document discusses mutagens and their actions. It defines mutagens as natural or human-made agents that can alter genetic material and induce mutation. There are three main types of mutagens: chemical mutagens, radiation, and biological mutagens. Chemical mutagens include base analogs, chemical modification agents like alkylating agents, and intercalating agents. Radiation mutagens can be ionizing or non-ionizing, such as UV radiation. Biological mutagens include viruses and transposable elements that can insert into DNA. Exposure to these mutagens may induce mutations by altering DNA structure.
The Root cause and Culprit behind Chronic Diseases, Cancer and Aging is well recognized now by many authorities. It includes: 1- A state of chronic low grade inflammation. 2- Mitochondrial dysfunction.
In order for our organs to function properly, they require energy, and that energy is produced by the mitochondria (the power engine). Mitochondrial function is at the very heart of everything that occurs in our body. Mitochondria our body’s lifeline are tiny organelles in our cell, thousands of them comprising 15 to 50% of the cell volume. Red blood cells and skin cells have very little to none, while germ cells have 100,000, but most cells have one to 2,000 of them. They're the primary source of energy for our body. They supply over 90% of our body’s energy. Converting the food we eat and the air we breathe into usable energy. It have enormous potential to influence our health, specifically cancer. Optimizing mitochondrial function and preventing mitochondrial dysfunction is extremely important for health and disease prevention and may be at the core of effective cancer treatment. Important nutrients and co-factors for mitochondrial function include: all B vitamins, magnesium, omega-3 fat, CoQ10, acetyl L- carnitine, D-ribose, and alpha-lipoic acid. Exercise is also important for mitochondrial health and function
This document discusses cell signaling systems. It describes how cell communication begins with a receptor protein receiving an extracellular signal and converting it into an intracellular signal. It then outlines the main components of a signaling system, including ligands, receptors, and signal transduction pathways. It provides examples of different types of ligands and receptors, and how signals are transmitted and integrated within cells. Various signaling molecules and mechanisms are examined in detail, such as calcium signaling, growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters, and nitric oxide. The roles of cell signaling in processes like fertilization, apoptosis, and embryonic development are also summarized.
This document summarizes a chapter about nucleic acids and nucleotides from a biochemistry textbook. It discusses the key topics of:
1. Nucleic acids are large biomolecules made of nucleotides as monomers, with two main types being DNA and RNA. Nucleotides contain a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
2. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and thymine bases, while RNA contains ribose and uracil bases. They form base pairs to allow the strands to bind.
3. Nucleotides combine to form nucleic acids, and different types of RNA have important cellular functions like protein synthesis and gene regulation. The double helix structure of DNA
This document provides a review of key concepts from chemistry of life, cell biology, genetics, and evolution. It defines organic compounds and the six elements that make up living things. It describes the four major categories of organic molecules and their structures and functions. It also reviews cell structures, organelles, and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Genetic concepts like DNA, genes, mutations, and Mendelian genetics are summarized. Finally, it defines evolution by natural selection and provides evidence to support the theory of evolution.
This document provides notes on AQA GCSE Biology for Unit 2. It covers several topics:
- Cells and cell structures, including the structures and functions of plant, animal, yeast and bacterial cells.
- Tissues, organs and organ systems, explaining how cells differentiate and organize into tissues, organs, and systems to carry out functions.
- Photosynthesis, outlining the process by which plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
- Organisms and their environment, discussing physical factors that affect organisms and methods to collect quantitative data on populations and distributions.
- Proteins, explaining their structures and functions, including as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components.
The document provides a review of key biology concepts across several topics:
1) It begins with an outline of topics including cell biology, genetics, evolution, microscopy, and ecology.
2) It then presents vocabulary terms and their definitions related to these topics, such as organic compounds, ATP, osmosis, and active transport.
3) The document concludes by listing additional review concepts and questions to test understanding of the material.
1) All living organisms are composed of cells that carry out essential functions like energy production, waste removal, and growth. Cells divide through mitosis and differentiate into specialized cell types to form the structures and organs of multicellular organisms.
2) Cellular processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and cellular reproduction are controlled by genetic instructions in DNA. Photosynthesis converts sunlight into chemical energy while respiration releases energy from food. Cell division through mitosis and differentiation allows organisms to grow and repair tissues.
3) Cancer occurs when cells accumulate mutations in DNA that cause uncontrolled growth and division. Most cancer deaths are linked to tobacco use and unhealthy diets.
1. The document provides information on the IGCSE biology specification for the Triple Award, including the classification of living organisms into five kingdoms and the structures and functions of cells, tissues, and organ systems.
2. It also covers topics like photosynthesis, diffusion, osmosis, human nutrition, and the digestive system, providing details on the key processes, experiments, and structures/organelles involved.
3. Specific examples are given for classifying organisms, structures of plant and animal cells, the effect of temperature on the enzyme catalase, and experiments on photosynthesis and energy content of foods.
Cell structure and function basics of cell biologyNitish kumar
- Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" in 1665 when looking at cork cells under a microscope.
- All living things are composed of one or more cells, which are the basic unit of structure and function and arise from pre-existing cells.
- All cells possess a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells also have membrane-bound organelles within the cytoplasm.
- Plant and animal cells have different organelles like vacuoles in plant cells and chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis. Diseases can arise from defects in organelles like cilia in Kartagener syndrome and mitochondria in MELAS syndrome.
Biology - What you absolutely must know to pass the living environment regentsMr. Walajtys
This document provides an overview of key concepts needed to pass the New York State Living Environment/Biology Regents exam. It covers the scientific method, characteristics of living things, cells, homeostasis, and human body systems. Some of the main points discussed include the definitions of observations, inferences, hypotheses and theories; the components of a controlled experiment; the basic functions of living things like nutrition, transport and regulation; and how cells, tissues, organs and organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis in the human body.
The document provides a summary of 14 weeks of biology lessons covering topics like the scientific method, cells, DNA, genetics, evolution, and the history of life. It includes questions and answers on these topics. For example, it defines weight and mass, describes the parts of the cell, explains the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and lists the periods in the Mesozoic era.
Cell and its organelles MK MBBS SPIHER.pptxManinder Kour
This document discusses cell organelles and intercellular communication. It describes the basic components of cells, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum. It then explains how cells communicate with each other through direct contact via gap junctions, short-range chemical signaling as in autocrine and paracrine signaling, and long-range chemical signaling through the endocrine and nervous systems. The process of signal transduction is also summarized, from membrane receptors that detect extracellular signals, to second messengers within the cell that amplify and propagate the signal, to cellular responses.
The document summarizes key properties and structures of cells. It discusses that all living things are made of cells, which are the basic unit of life. It describes the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and some of the major organelles in plant and animal cells like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell membrane, cytoskeleton etc. It explains their functions and importance for cellular processes.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to the cellular level of organization, including:
- The three main parts of a eukaryotic cell are the plasma membrane, organelles, and cytoplasm.
- Plasma membranes consist of phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol.
- Organelles in eukaryotic cells include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and vacuoles.
- The document also discusses cellular transport mechanisms, DNA structure and replication, transcription and translation of DNA to synthesize proteins, and cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
This document provides an overview of cell and tissue structure and function topics covered in Cambridge IGCSE Biology. It discusses:
1) The structures of plant and animal cells as seen under light and electron microscopes and the functions of cell organelles.
2) DNA structure as a double helix formed from paired nucleotide bases.
3) The four stages of mitosis and its role in cell division.
4) Five types of tissues - bone, muscle, blood, nervous and epithelial - and their organization into organs and organ systems.
5) Carbohydrate structure including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides formed through condensation and hydrolysis reactions.
6) Lipid structure as trig
AIM
To study the factors on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect of this coil, when put in series with a resistor/bulb in a circuit connected to an AC source of adjustable frequency.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Enamelled copper wire
R
L
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. They were first observed by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek in the 1600s. In the 1830s, Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory which states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, and new cells are produced from existing cells. Cells come in different shapes and sizes depending on their function, and contain various internal structures like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and cell membrane. Cell functions are adapted to their specific roles through specialized structures and properties.
What Are The Three Postulates Of Cell TheoryErica Baldwin
The three postulates of cell theory are:
1) Cells are the fundamental unit of life. All living things are made of cells.
2) All cells come from preexisting cells. Cells reproduce through dividing to form new cells.
3) All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Multicellular organisms are made of many cells, while unicellular organisms are a single cell.
Test bank for davis advantage for pathophysiology 2nd edition by caprio.pdfrobinsonayot
Test bank for davis advantage for pathophysiology 2nd edition by caprio.pdf
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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Ls1 afet semester test 1 memo 2012
1. LS1AFET 2012
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FACULTY OF SCIENCE/ WETENSKAP FAKULTEIT
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY/ PLANTKUNDE DEPARTEMENT
LS1AFET
LIFE SCIENCE 1A FET/ LEWENSWETENSKAP 1A FET
APK CAMPUS/ KAMPUS
SEMESTER TEST 1/ SEMESTER TOETS 1 MEMORANDUM
23 MARCH 2012/ 23 MAART 2012
DATE/DATUM: 23 MARCH/MAART 2012
SESSION/SESSIE: 08H00 – 09H35
ASSESSOR: DR. M. COCHRANE
INTERNAL/INTERNA MODERATOR MRS. J. WILLIAMSON
DR. A. NEL
DURATION/TYD: 1½ HOURS
TOTAL MARKS/TOTAAL: 90
NUMBER OF PAGES: 6 PAGES/ AANTAL BLADSYE: 6 BLADSYE
Please read the following instructions carefully/ Lees asb. die volgende instruksies
versigtig deur:
1. Answer all the questions in the question paper. / Beantwoord al die vrae in die
vraestel.
2. Answer ALL of the questions in the test book./ Beantwoord AL die vrae in die
toetsboek.
3. Work neatly./ Werk netjies.
4. Read your questions carefully./ Lees die vrae sorgvuldig deur.
5. Good Luck./ Sterkte.
2. LS1AFET 2012
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QUESTION/VRAAG 1 [8]
Choose the alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question. Only
write down the correct letter next to the appropriate question number in your answer
book./ Kies die alternatief wat die stelling die beste voltooi of die vraag beantwoord. Skryf
slegs die korrekte letter langs die toepaslike vraagnommer op jou antwoordblad neer.
1.1 Chitin ___________./Chitien _________
A. forms part of the cell wall of woody plants./ vorm deel van die selwand van houtagtige
plante.
B. has glucose monomers that contain a nitrogen containing appendage./ het
glukose monomere wat stikstof aanhangsels bevat.
C. forms a subcutaneous (below skin) insulation layer to heat up animals in cold areas./
vorm ‘n onderhuidse insulasie vetlaag om die diere in koue areas warm te hou.
D. consists of polypeptides and range in length from a few to more than a thousand
(1000) monomers./ bestaan uit polipeptiede en verskil in lengte vanaf ‘n paar tot meer
as ‘n duisend (1000) monomere.
1.2 Which one (1)of the following statements is not true about enzymes?/ Watter een (1)
van die volgende stellings is nie waar aangaande ensieme nie?
A. Enzymes are biological catalysts of metabolic processes./ Ensieme is biologiese
katalisators van metaboliese prosesse.
B. Most enzymes are proteins./ Meeste ensieme is proteiene.
C. Enzymes increase the speed of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy./
Ensieme verhoog die spoed van die chemiese reaksies deur die aktiverings energie
te verlaag.
D. Enzymes are inactivated and denatured by low temperatures./ Ensieme word
geinaktiveel en gedenatureer by lae temperature.
1.3 A phospholipid is composed of ___________./ ‘n Fosfolipied bestaan uit_____
A. one (1) fatty acid molecule linked to three (3) glycerol molecules./ een (1)
vetsuurmolekule wat gebind word aan drie (3) gliserolmolekules.
B. one (1) glycerol molecule linked to three (3) phosphate groups./ een (1) gliserol
verbind aan drie (3) fosfaatgroepe.
C. one (1) fatty acid molecule linked to one (1) glycerol molecule and two (2) phosphate
groups./ een (1) vetsuurmolekule verbind aan een (1) gliserolmolekule en twee (2)
fosfaatmolekules.
D. one (1) glycerol molecule linked to one (1) phosphate group and two (2) fatty
3. LS1AFET 2012
3 | P a g e
acids./ een (1) gliserolmolekule veerbind aan een (1) fosfaatgroep en twee (2)
vetsure.
1.4 Mitosis occurs in ___________./ Mitose vind in _________________
A. all somatic cells of plants./ alle somatiese selle van plante plaas.
B. gametes./ gamete plaas.
C. sperm cells./ spermselle plaas.
D. all meristematic cells in plants./ alle meristematiese selle in plante plaas.
1.5 The centrosome ___________./ Die sentrosoom __________
A. connects the chromatids./ verbind die chromatiedes.
B. is found in the chromatin./ word in die chromatien gevind.
C. helps with mitosis in plant cells./ help met mitose in plantselle.
D. consists of two (2) centriole./ bestaan uit twee (2) sentrioli.
1.6 A deficiency of this vitamin causes Pellagra./ ‘n Te kort aan hierdie vitamien
veroorsaak Pellagra.
A. Vitamin/ Vitamien B1
B. Vitamin/ Vitamien B2
C. Vitamin/ Vitamien B3
D. Vitamin/ Vitamien C
1.7 A deficiency of which nutrient can cause prostate cancer?/ ‘n Te kort aan watter
voedingstof kan prostaatkanker veroorsaak?
A. Zink/ Sink
B. Sodium/ Natrium
C. Iron/ Yster
D. Calcium/ Kalsium
1.8 Which nutrient is required for the proper functioning of the thyroid gland?/ Wattter
voedingstof word benodig vir die behoorlike funksionering van die tiroiedklier?
A. Zinc/ Sink
B. Iodine/ Jodium
C. Fluorine/ Fluoor
D. Magnesium
4. LS1AFET 2012
4 | P a g e
QUESTION 2/ VRAAG 2 [10]
Give the correct biological term for each of the following statements. Only write down the
correct term next to the appropriate question number on the answer sheet./ Gee die
korrekte biologiese term vir elk van die volgende stellings. Skryf slegs die korrekte term
langs die toepaslike vraagnommer op die antwoordblad neer.
2.1 Monomers of carbohydrates./ Monomere van koolhidrate. Monosaccharides
2.2 The symptoms of this disease include a distended abdomen and an enlarged liver./
Die simptome van hierdie siekte sluit ‘n opgeswelde abdomen en vergrote lewer in.
Kwashiorkor
2.3 Photograph of a cell taken under a microscope./ Foto wat onder ‘n mikroskoop
geneem is. Photomicrograph
2.4 Structure in eukaryotic cells that produces rRNA./ Struktuur in ‘n eukariotiese sel wat
rRNA produseer. Nucleolus
2.5 The process to form a disaccharide./ Die proses wat ‘n disakkaried vorm.
Dehydration synthesis
2.6 A condition caused by high levels of cholesterol in the blood./ ‘n Toestand wat
veroorsaak word deur hoë cholesterolvlakke in die bloed. Artherosclerosis
2.7 A fibrous protein consisting of three (3) polypeptides coiled like a rope./’n Veselagtige
proteien wat uit drie (3) polipeptiede bestaan wat opgerol is soos ‘n tou. Collagen
2.8 This scientist developed a microscope with one (1) lens./ Hierdie wetenskaplike het ‘n
mikroskoop met een (1) lens ontwikkel. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
2.9 The scientist who said that all cells can be traced back to their origin./ Hierdie
wetenskaplike wat gesê het dat alle selle tot hul oorsprong terug gevind kan word.
August Weismann
2.10 The structure connecting the duplicated chromosome./ Die struktuur wat die
gedupliseerde chromosome verbind. Centromere
QUESTION 3/ VRAAG 3 [8]
Provide a short definition for each of the following:/ Verskaf ‘n kort definisie vir elk van die
volgende:
3.1 Hydrolysis/ Hidrolise
The chemical breakdown of a compound by adding (or reaction with) water e.g.
when starch is broken down by the process of hydrolysis (adding water) it
forms several glucose molecules used for energy production.
3.2 Adipose cells/ Adiposeselle
For cushioning around vital organs (shock absorption) - protection.
5. LS1AFET 2012
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3.3 Sickle cell disease/ Sekelselanemie
An inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the
protein hemoglobin.
3.4 Activation energy/ Aktiveringsenergie
The energy that must be added to molecules, to cause the molecules to react
with one another.
3.5 Substrates/ Substrate
Are the reactants which the enzyme must either help break up or help to bond
together.
3.6 Rickets/ Ragitis
Deforming of the bones in children due to a deficiency of calcium (Ca) and
phosphorous (P).
3.7 Prokaryotic cells/ Prokariotiese selle
Cells without a membrane bound nucleus e.g. bacteria, archaea.
3.8 Metastasize/ Metastaseer
Exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form
secondary tumors.
QUESTION 4/ VRAAG 4 [18]
4.1 Distinguish between glucose and glycogen./ Onderskei tussen glukose en
glikogeen. (4)
Glycogen
Is glucose stored in animals – storage in liver and muscle cells
Is a polysaccharide
Glucose
Is a direct form of energy supply
Is a monosaccharide
4.2 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow./ Bestudeer die
diagram hieronder en beantwoord die vrae wat volg.
4.2.1 What molecule is represented in the diagram above?/ Watter molekule word in die
diagram hierbo voorgestel? (1)
Saturated fat
6. LS1AFET 2012
6 | P a g e
4.2.2 List four (4) main properties of the molecule represented in the diagram above./ Lys
die vier (4) eienskappe van die molekule wat in die diagram hierbo voorgestel
word. (4)
ANY 4
Solid/ hard fats at room temperature
From animals like butter
No double bonds between C-atoms – all carbons attached to hydrogen's
No kinks in carbon chains
Cause atherosclerosis – cardiovascular complications
4.3 Name three (3) components of nucleotides./ Noem drie (3) komponente van
nukleotiedes. (3)
Each nucleotide consists of a
nitrogenous base,
a pentose sugar, and
a phosphate group
4.4 Briefly describe a DNA molecule./ Beskryf die DNA molekule kortliks. (6)
Has 2 polynucleotide chains
Spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix
Bases in DNA pair up
Form hydrogen bonds:
Adenine (A) always with thymine (T)
Guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)
QUESTION 5/ VRAAG 5 [8]
5.1 List and describe the properties of water that contribute to Earth’s fitness for life./ Lys
en beskryf die eienskappe van water wat daartoe bydrae dat lewe op Aarde moontlik
is.
1. Cohesive behavior
Contributes to upward water transport in plants by holding the water
column together.
2. Ability to moderate temperature
Water resists temperature changes when it absorbs or releases heat. As
a result water keeps temperature fluctuations within a range suitable for
life.
7. LS1AFET 2012
7 | P a g e
3. Expansion upon freezing
Water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid, therefore ice floats.
Prevents deep bodies of water from freezing solid from the bottom up.
As water freezes it releases heat to the water below and insulates it.
Makes the transitions between seasons less abrupt.
4. Versatility as a solvent
Able to dissolve a large variety of solutes
QUESTION 6/ VRAAG 6 [22]
Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow./Bestudeer die volgende
diagram en beantwoord die vrae wat volg.
6.1 Is this a plant or animal cell? Give two reasons for your answer./ Is hierdie ‘n plant- of
diersel? (3)
Animal – no cell wall, no chloroplasts, no large central vacuole, centrosome
present
6.2 Provide a label and a function for structures numbered 1 – 5./ Verskaf ‘n byskrif en ‘n
funksie vir al die strukture wat 1-5 genommer is. (10)
1: Nucleus – genetic information
2: Plasma membrane – encloses cell
3: Rough ER – membrane synthesis and metabolic processes
4: Mitochondrion – respiration and ATP generation
5: Golgi apparatus – active in synthesis & secretion of cell products
8. LS1AFET 2012
8 | P a g e
6.3 Draw and label an enlarged version of structure 4./ Teken en benoem ‘n vergrootte
weergawe van struktuur 4. (4)
Heading: 1 mark
Labels: 3 marks
Figure: Drawing of a mitochondrion
6.4 Describe how oxygen and water would enter the cell above./ Beskryf hoe water en
suurstof die sel binne kan gaan. (5)
Oxygen is a non-polar molecule
It can dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and can cross without the
aid of membrane proteins.
Water is a polar molecule, needs the aid of proteins to get across the
membrane.
Hydrophyllic substances can avoid contact with the hydrophobic lipid bilayer
by passing through transport proteins
Aquaporins – channel proteins for the transport of water
QUESTION 7 [16]
Study the following diagram and answer the questions that follow./ Bestudeer die volgende
diagram en beantwoord die vrae wat volg.
9. LS1AFET 2012
9 | P a g e
7.1 Name the process that the cell in the diagram is undergoing./ Noem die proses wat
die sel in die diagram ondergaan. (1)
Mitosis
7.2 Which phase of the process in question 7.1 is depicted in the diagram?/ Watter fase
van die proses in vraag 7.1 word in die diagram voorgestel? (2)
Teleophase
7.3 Draw and label the phase that precedes the phase in the diagram. / Teken en
benoem die fase wat die fase in die diagram voorafgaan. (5)
Heading: 1 mark
Labels: 2 marks
Drawing: 2 marks
Figure: Anaphase
7.4 How many homologous chromosomes do humans have?/ Hoeveel homoloë
chromosome het ‘n mens? (1)
23
7.5 Describe what happens during interphase of the cell cycle. / Beskryf wat gebeur
tydens interfase van die selsiklus. (4)
Interphase includes:
G1: growth
S: DNA synthesis – chromosomes copied
G2: growth & prep for cell division
7.6 Briefly discuss malignant tumours./ Bespreek kwaadaardige tumors kortliks. (3)
Invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize
Exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form
secondary tumors.
They do not exhibit anchorage dependence or density dependent inhibition.
TOTAL/ TOTAAL: 90
daughter chromosome
kinetochore microtubule