In this power point presentation, we discuss about how movement and locomotion takes place in Humans. We discuss about various types of muscles present in humans, how those muscles contract. Also we discuss about the human skeletal system with all the bones and joints in the human body

1. CLASS- XI
Biology
Prepared by: Bhavya Vashisht

2. Indroduction
 Movement is one of the most significant features of living beings.
 Animals and plant exhibit wide range of movements
 Amoeba- Streaming of protoplasm- Simplest form
 Cilia, Flagella, Tentacles- Shown by many organisms
 Humans- Move limbs, jaws, eyelids, etc.
 Locomotion: Voluntary movements resulting in change of
place or location.
 Locomotory movements: Walking, running, climbing, flying,
Swimming

3. WALKING RUNNING
FLYING
CLIMBING SWIMMING
LOCOMOTORY MOVEMENTS

4. Locomotory structures
 Paramoecium: Cilia- Help in movement of food through cytopharynx
and in locomotion.
 Hydra: Tentacles- Use its tentacles for capturing prey & also for
locomotion.
 Humans: Limbs- Change in body posture and locomotion.
 Method of locomotion performed by animals vary with their habitats
and demands
 Locomotion generally for search of food, shelter, mate, breeding
grounds, favorable climatic conditions or to escape predators.

5. TYPES OF MOVEMENT
 Human body cells: 3 main types of movements
1. Amoeboid: * Macrophages, Leucocytes in blood
* Effected by pseudopodia formed by streaming of
protoplasm.
* Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments
2. Ciliary: * Occurs in most of internal tubular organs that are
lined by epithelium.
* Coordinated movements of cilia in trachea
* Passage of Ova through female reproductive tract
3. Muscular: * Movement of limbs, jaws, tongue etc.
* Contractile property of muscles effectively used for
movement and locomotion.
 Requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural
systems

6. MUSCLE
 Specialized tissue of mesodermal origin.
 Contributes about 40-50% body weight of humans
 Have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and
elasticity
 Classification based on location:
Skeletal Muscles Visceral Muscles Cardiac Muscles
Closely associated with
skeletal components
Located in the inner walls of
hollow visceral organs of
body: alimentary canal, etc.
Located in heart
Have striped appearance under
microscope
Don’t have any striation Assemble in branching
pattern to form cardiac
muscle
Called Striated muscles Called Smooth muscles Striated
Called Voluntary muscles Called involuntary muscles Involuntary
Involved in locomotory actions
& changes of body postures
Assist in transportation of
food through digestive tract
Help in contraction and
relaxation of heart

8. Skeletal Muscles
 Made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles
 Help together by common collagenous connective tissue layer called
fascia.
 Muscle bundle contains number of muscle fibres.
 Muscle fibre is lined by plasma membrane called Sarcolemma
enclosing sarcoplasm.
 Muscle fibre: Syncitium (Sarcoplasm contain many nuclei)
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibres stores Calcium ions.
 Presence of large no. of parallel arranged filaments called
myofilaments/ myofibrils.
 Myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it
 Detailed study of myofibril showed that striated appearance is due to
distribution pattern of Actin and Myosin

9. Cross sectional view of Muscle showing muscle bundles and
muscle fibres

10. Anatomy of muscle fibre
 I- Band/ Isotropic Band: Light band containing Actin
 A- Band/ Anisotropic band: Dark band containing Myosin
 Both proteins arranged as rod like structure parallel to each other & also to the
longitudinal axis of myofibrils
 Actin filaments: thinner- Thin filaments
 Myosin filaments: thicker- Thick filaments
 In centre of each I- Band= Elastic fibre called Z-Line which bisects it
Thin filaments firmly attached to Z-Line
 In centre of each A- Band= thin fibrous membrane- M-Line
Thick filaments firmly attached to M-Line
 A and I bands arranged alternatively throughout length of myofibril
 Sarcromere: Portion of myofibril between 2 successive Z lines.
Functional unit of contraction
 Resting stage- Edge of thin filaments on either side of thick filaments partially
overlap free ends of thick filaments leaving central part of thick filament non
overlapped. This part of thick filament is called H-Zone

13. Structure of Contractile Proteins
 ACTIN FILAMENT-
 Actin (thin) filament made of 2 F (filamentous) actins helically wound
to each other
 F Actin: Polymer of monomeric G (Globular) Actin
 2 Filaments of another protein: Tropomyosin run close to F- Actin
throughout its length.
 Complex protein: Troponin distributed at regular intervals on
tropomyosin
 Resting state: Subunit of troponin masks active binding site for myosin
on Actin filaments

15. Structure of Contractile Proteins
 MYOSIN FILAMENT (THICK)-
 Many monomeric called Meromyosins constitutes 1 thick filament
 Meromyosin: 2 parts: Heavy Meromyosin (HMM)- Globular head &
short arm
Light Meromyosin (LMM)- Tail
 HMM component project outwards at regular distance & angle from
each other from surface of polyerised myosin filament: Cross Arm
 Globular head is an active ATPase enzyme & has binding sites for ATP
and active sites for Actin.

16. CROSS
ARM
ACTIN BINDING SITES
ATP BINDING SITES

17. Mechanism of muscle contraction
 Explained by Sliding Filament Theory
 Contraction of muscles takes place by sliding of thin filaments over
thick filaments
 Initiated by signal sent by CNS via motor neuron.
 Motor neuron + muscle fibre = Motor Unit
 Neuromuscular Junction/ Motor-end plate: Junction of motor neuron
and Sarcolemma in muscle fibre
 Neural signal reaching this junction releases neurotransmitter (Acetyl
Choline): generate action potential in Sarcolemma
 This spreads through muscle fibre and causes release of Ca++ into
sarcoplasm
 Increase in Ca++ leads to binding of Calcium with subunit of Troponin
on Actin filament.
 This removes masking of active sites for Myosin

18. Mechanism of muscle contraction
 Utilising energy from ATP hydrolysis, Myosin head binds to expose active sites on
Actin to form Cross Bridge.
 This pulls attached filaments towards centre of A- Band.
 Z-line attached to actins pulled inward causing shortening of sarcomere: Contraction
 During contraction, I- Bands gets reduced whereas A- Band retains the length.
 Myosin release ADP and P1 & goes back to its relaxed state.
 New ATP binds and cross link broken.
 ATP hydrolysed again by myosin head & cycle of Cross Bridge formation& breaking
repeated causing further sliding.
 Process continues till Ca++ pumped back to sarcoplamic cisternae resulting in
masking of Actin filament.
 This causes return of Z lines back to original position: relaxation.

21. Mechanism of muscle contraction
 Reaction time of fibres vary in different muscles.
 Repeated activation of muscles can lead to accumulation of lactic Acid
due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them causing fatigue.
 Muscle contains red colored oxygen storing pigment: myoglobin.
 Red Fibres: High myoglobin, gives reddish appearance.
Contain plenty of mitochondria which utilises large
amount of oxygen stored in them for ATP production.
Hence called Aerobic muscles.
 White fibres: Less myoglobin, gives whitish appearance
Less number of mitochondria, amount of sarcoplasmic
reticulum is high.
Depend on anaerobic process for energy

22. SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Consists of framework of bones and few cartilages.
 Significant role in movement shown by the body.
 Bones and cartilages are specialised connective tissues.
 Bones made up of very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it
 Cartilages made up of slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts
 206 bones and few cartilages
 Grouped into 2 divisions: Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
 Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along main axis of the
body
 Constitutes: Skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs.

23. SKULL
 Composed of 2 sets of bones: Cranial & facial
 Total 22 bones: 8 Cranial & 14 facial
 Cranial bones from hard protective outer covering: cranium of brain
 Facial bones makes facial region which form the front part of skull
 1 U-shaped bone: Hyoid: Present at base of buccal cavity, also
included in skull.
 Each Middle ear: Ear Ossicles: Malleus, Incus & Stapes
 Skull region articulates with superior region of vertebral column with
help of 2 condyles (dicondylic skull)

25. • There are 22 bones in the skull. Including the bones of the middle ear, the head
contains 28 bones.
• Cranial bones are 8 in number. They are:
Occipital bone.
Parietal bones (2)
Frontal bone
Temporal bones (2)
Sphenoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Ethmoid bone (sometimes counted as facial)
Middle ear: Ear Ossicles: Malleus, Incus & Stapes (3)
CRANIAL &EAR BONES

27. •Facial bones are 15 in number. They are:
Nasal bones (2)
Maxillae (upper jaw) (2)
Lacrimal bone (2)
Zygomatic bone (cheek bones) (2)
Palatine bone (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2)
Vomer (1)
Hyoid bone (1)
Mandible (1)
FACIAL BONES

29. •Formed of 26 serially arranged vertebrae & is dorsally placed.
•Extends from base of skull & constitutes the main framework of the trunk.
•Each vertebrae has central hollow portion: Neural Canal through which spinal cord
passes
•1st vertebrae: Atlas- Articulates with occipital condyles
•Vertrbral column starting from skull differentiated into:
*Cervical (7)
*Thoracic (12)
*Lumbar (5)
*Sacral (1 fused)
*Coccygeal (1 fused)
•Vertebral column : *Protects spinal cord
*Supports head
*Serves as point of attachment for ribs and musculature of
the back
Vertebral column

32. STERNUM AND RIBS
 Sternum: Flat bone on ventral midline of thorax
 Ribs: 12 pairs
 Each rib is thin flat bone connected dorsally to vertebral column & ventrally
to sternum
 1st 7 ribs pairs: True ribs: Attached to thoracic vertebrae dorsally & to
sternum ventrally with help of hyaline cartilage
 8th, 9th & 10 ribs pairs: Vertebrochondral/ False ribs: don’t articulate directly
with sternum but join 7th rib with help of hyaline cartilage
 11th and 12th ribs pair: Floating ribs: Not connected ventrally
 Thoracic vertebrae+ Ribs+ Sternum= Rib Cage

34. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 Includes bones of limbs along with their girdles.
 Each limb made up of 30 bones
 Bones of hand (Fore limb)
Humerus (1)
Radius (1)
Ulna (1)
Carpals/ Wrist Bones (8)
Metacarpals (5)
Phalanges/ Digits (14)

35. Bones of Hind Limb (Leg)
 Each hind limb is made up of :
 Femur/ Thigh Bone (Longest Bone)
Tibia (1)
Fibula (1)
Tarsal/ Ankle Bone (7)
Metatarsal (5)
Phalanges (14)
Cup shaped bone called
Patella cover the knee
Ventrally (Knee Cap)

36. GIRDLES
 Pectoral & Pelvic girdle bones in articulation of upper & lower limbs
respectively with axial skeleton.
 Each girdle is formed of 2 halves
 Each half of pectoral girdle consists of Clavicle & Scapula.
 Scapula is large triangular flat bone situated in dorsal part of thorax
between 2nd and 7th ribs
 Dorsal, flat, triangular body of Scapula has slightly elevated ridge
called Spine which projects as flat, expanded process called Acromion.
 Clavicle articulates with Acromion.
 Below Acromion is a depression called Glenoid cavity: articulates with
head of Humerus from shoulder point.
 Each clavicle is a long slender bone with 2 curvatures.
 The bone is commonly called Collar bone

38. PELVIC GIRDLE
 Consists of 2 Coxal Bones
 Coxal Bone: formed by fusion of 3 bones: Ilium, Ischium,
Pubis
 At point of fusion of above bones, a cavity: Acetabulum
 Thigh bone articulates to Acetabulum
 2 parts of pelvic girdle meet ventrally & form Pubic
Symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.

40. JOINTS
 Essential for all types of movements involving the bony parts
of the body.
 They are point of contact between bones or between bones
and cartilages
 Force generated by muscles is used to carry our movement
through joints , where joint acts as fulcrum.
 Movability of joints depends on different factors
 Types of joint: Fibrous joint
Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint

41. FIBROUS JOINTS
 Don’t allow any movement
 Shown by flat skull bones which fuse end to end with help of
dense fibrous connective tissues in form of sutures to form
Cranium.

42. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
 Bones involved joined together with help of cartilages.
 Joints between adjacent vertebrae in vertebral column is of
this pattern.
 Permits limited movements

43. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
 Presence of fluid filled synovial cavity between articulated
surfaces of 2 bones
 Allows considerable movement
 Help in locomotion & many other movements.
 Examples:
 Ball and socket joint (between Acetabulum of Hip Bone &
Femur)
 Hinge Joint (knee joint)
 Pivot joint ( between Atlas & Axis)
 Gliding joint (between Carpals)
 Saddle joint ( between Carpal and Metacarpal of thumb)

44. Ball and socket JOINTS

45. hinge JOINTS

46. pivot JOINTS

47. gliding JOINTS

48. Saddle JOINTS

49. Disorders
Myasthenia gravis: Auto immune disorder
Affect neuromuscular junction
| Leads to fatigue, weakness, paralysis of
skeletal muscle
Muscular Dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal
muscle
Genetic disorder
Tetany: Rapid spasms in muscle due to low Ca ++
in body fluid
Arthritis: Inflammation of joints
Osteoporosis: Age related disorder
Decrease bone mass
Increased chances of fractures
Decreased levels of Estrogen is common
cause
Gout: Inflammation of joints
Accumulation of uric acid crystals

50. THANK YOU