The document provides an overview of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, including its history, construction challenges, and operation. It discusses the LHC's magnets and particle focusing scheme using superconducting magnets to achieve unprecedented beam energies of 7 TeV. It also describes the LHC's luminosity goals and interaction regions where particle collisions take place, as well as its injection and beam filling schemes to maximize collision rates.
CERN operates the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator that was built to study fundamental subatomic particles and recreate conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC accelerates beams of hadrons, which are particles composed of quarks, and causes the beams to collide within the 27 kilometer circumference accelerator. Scientists hope these high-energy collisions will help answer questions about the universe and allow observation of what occurred after the Big Bang and what may happen in the future evolution of the universe.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a large particle accelerator located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 at a cost of $9 billion, it collides opposing beams of protons or lead ions to study particle physics, including attempts to detect the Higgs boson. The LHC is housed in a 27 km circular tunnel 175 m underground and can accelerate protons up to 7 TeV per nucleon. Six international experiments analyze particles produced in the collisions. While initial operation was delayed by a magnet quench in 2008, the LHC discovered the Higgs boson in 2012 and continues operating to explore new physics.
The document discusses the history of particle physics and the development of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how particles like electrons, protons, neutrons were discovered and how the atomic model evolved. Experiments at particle accelerators revealed more fundamental particles that were grouped into families and the three quark model was developed. The Higgs mechanism was proposed to explain how fundamental particles acquire mass through interacting with the hypothesized Higgs field. The Large Hadron Collider was built at CERN to search for the predicted but not yet observed Higgs boson and potentially discover signs of new physics like supersymmetry.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 by over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, the LHC lies in a 27-kilometer tunnel up to 175 meters underground. Physicists use the LHC to study the collisions of beams of hadrons (protons and heavy ions) circulating at nearly the speed of light to investigate fundamental questions in physics, such as the Higgs mechanism, supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and dark matter. The LHC led to the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson and continues making new discoveries through high-energy collisions analyzed using detectors like AT
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the highest energy particle collider ever built. It was constructed by CERN near Geneva, Switzerland to test theories of particle physics by colliding protons at high energies, recreating conditions shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC aims to answer questions like discovering the Higgs boson and exploring dark matter, extra dimensions, and what happened in the early universe. While searching for unknown particles, the LHC may provide insights with applications for medicine, technology, and understanding antimatter asymmetry that could explain our matter-dominated universe.
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
CERN operates the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator that was built to study fundamental subatomic particles and recreate conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC accelerates beams of hadrons, which are particles composed of quarks, and causes the beams to collide within the 27 kilometer circumference accelerator. Scientists hope these high-energy collisions will help answer questions about the universe and allow observation of what occurred after the Big Bang and what may happen in the future evolution of the universe.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a large particle accelerator located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 at a cost of $9 billion, it collides opposing beams of protons or lead ions to study particle physics, including attempts to detect the Higgs boson. The LHC is housed in a 27 km circular tunnel 175 m underground and can accelerate protons up to 7 TeV per nucleon. Six international experiments analyze particles produced in the collisions. While initial operation was delayed by a magnet quench in 2008, the LHC discovered the Higgs boson in 2012 and continues operating to explore new physics.
The document discusses the history of particle physics and the development of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how particles like electrons, protons, neutrons were discovered and how the atomic model evolved. Experiments at particle accelerators revealed more fundamental particles that were grouped into families and the three quark model was developed. The Higgs mechanism was proposed to explain how fundamental particles acquire mass through interacting with the hypothesized Higgs field. The Large Hadron Collider was built at CERN to search for the predicted but not yet observed Higgs boson and potentially discover signs of new physics like supersymmetry.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 by over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, the LHC lies in a 27-kilometer tunnel up to 175 meters underground. Physicists use the LHC to study the collisions of beams of hadrons (protons and heavy ions) circulating at nearly the speed of light to investigate fundamental questions in physics, such as the Higgs mechanism, supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and dark matter. The LHC led to the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson and continues making new discoveries through high-energy collisions analyzed using detectors like AT
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the highest energy particle collider ever built. It was constructed by CERN near Geneva, Switzerland to test theories of particle physics by colliding protons at high energies, recreating conditions shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC aims to answer questions like discovering the Higgs boson and exploring dark matter, extra dimensions, and what happened in the early universe. While searching for unknown particles, the LHC may provide insights with applications for medicine, technology, and understanding antimatter asymmetry that could explain our matter-dominated universe.
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
The Higgs boson is the last “missing piece” of the Standard Model and the 5th member of the boson family (but not a force carrier).
The Higgs is a hypothetical particle that gives mass to all other particles that normally have mass.
The Higgs particle creates a Higgs field that permeates spacetime.
The Higgs particle and its corresponding field are critical to the understanding and validation of the SM, since the Higgs is deemed responsible for giving particles their mass.
The elusive Higgs is so central to the SM and the theory on which the whole understanding of matter is based, if the Higgs does not exist (is not detected), we will not be able to explain the origin of mass.
Numerous people chat quietly in a fairly crowded room.
Rajnikanth enters the room causing a disturbance in the field.
Followers cluster and surround Rajnikanth as this group of people forms a “massive object”.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that allows scientists to explore the Higgs field, a fundamental field that exists everywhere and gives particles mass. Confirming the existence of the Higgs field and particle explains several puzzles in physics, such as why some particles have mass and the short range of the weak force. After a 40 year search and construction of the Large Hadron Collider, scientists announced in 2012 the discovery of a new particle with properties matching the predicted Higgs boson, confirming its existence.
The document presents a high-level overview of the Standard Model of particle physics in a series of clickable slides, describing the basic subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up atoms as well as force carrier particles like photons and gluons that enable interactions between fermions. It also discusses theoretical particles like the Higgs boson and graviton that could help explain fundamental forces and properties like mass. The slides pose additional questions about applying the model to heavier generations of particles and alternative atomic structures.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that is responsible for giving mass to other particles. It was proposed in 1964 and discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. The Higgs boson is extremely short-lived, decaying within one billionth of a trillionth of a second. Its discovery helps scientists better understand how particles acquire mass and could provide insights into cosmic inflation, dark matter, and the composition of the universe.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Atoms and Periodic Table of the Elements unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 2000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 15 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: -Atoms (Atomic Force Microscopes), Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment, Cathode Tube, Atoms, Fundamental Particles, The Nucleus, Isotopes, AMU, Size of Atoms and Particles, Quarks, Recipe of the Universe, Atomic Theory, Atomic Symbols, #'s, Valence Electrons, Octet Rule, SPONCH Atoms, Molecules, Hydrocarbons (Structure), Alcohols (Structure), Proteins (Structure), Periodic Table of the Elements, Organization of Periodic Table, Transition Metals, Electron Negativity, Non-Metals, Metals, Metalloids, Atomic Bonds, Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, Metallic Bonds, Ionization, and much more.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
In particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons.
The simplest description of the mechanism adds a Higgs field to the Standard Model gauge theory. The symmetry breaking triggers conversion of the longitudinal field component to the Higgs boson, which interacts with itself and (at least a part of) the other fields in the theory, so as to produce mass terms for the Z and W bosons.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Matter, Energy, and the Environment Unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 3,500+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 20 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: Matter, Dark Matter, Elements and Compounds, States of Matter, Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasma, Law Conservation of Matter, Physical Change, Chemical Change, Gas Laws, Charles Law, Avogadro's Law, Ideal Gas Law, Pascal's Law, Archimedes Principle, Buoyancy, Seven Forms of Energy, Nuclear Energy, Electromagnet Spectrum, Waves / Wavelengths, Light (Visible Light), Refraction, Diffraction, Lens, Convex / Concave, Radiation, Electricity, Lightning, Static Electricity, Magnetism, Coulomb's Law, Conductors, Insulators, Semi-conductors, AC and DC current, Amps, Watts, Resistance, Magnetism, Faraday's Law, Compass, Relativity, Einstein, and E=MC2, Energy, First Law of Thermodynamics, Second Law of Thermodynamics-Third Law of Thermodynamics, Industrial Processes, Environmental Studies, The 4 R's, Sustainability, Human Population Growth, Carrying Capacity, Green Design, Renewable Forms of Energy (The 11th Hour)
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It describes how the particle was theorized in 1964 by Peter Higgs and others to help explain how elementary particles acquire mass. Researchers at CERN used the Large Hadron Collider to finally detect the Higgs boson in 2012 through high-energy collisions of protons, confirming its existence after decades of experiments. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a major achievement that validated the Standard Model of particle physics.
The document provides an overview of the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the fundamental particles and forces. It explains that particles are made up of even smaller particles called quarks and electrons. Forces are carried by particles called force carriers, such as photons for electromagnetism and gluons for the strong force. The Standard Model includes three generations of matter particles that are duplicates of the first generation but with increasing mass. While the Standard Model is very successful, it leaves many questions unanswered which has led physicists to develop new theories and search for new particles.
SEMICONDUCTORS,BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS,FERMI-DIRAC PROBABILITY,DISTRIBUTION FUN...A K Mishra
This PPT contains valence band,conduction band& forbidden energy gap,Free carrier charge density,intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,Conductivity in semiconductors
1. Elementary particles are classified as either bosons or fermions based on their spin. Bosons have integer spin while fermions have half-integer spin.
2. Bosons include photons, gluons, and mesons. Fermions include leptons like electrons and muons, and hadrons like protons, neutrons, and baryons.
3. Four fundamental forces - strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravity - interact between elementary particles and hold matter together. The strong force binds quarks, the weak force governs radioactive decay, and gravity and electromagnetism are familiar long-range forces.
The document discusses the discovery of the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It provides background on the development of the standard model of particle physics and the theoretical prediction of the Higgs boson. Experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider aimed to detect the Higgs boson, and in 2012 they announced evidence of a new boson that matches the properties of the Higgs boson, with its existence being confirmed in 2013. Finding the Higgs boson was a major milestone in understanding particle physics and mass.
The Standard Model and the LHC in the Higgs Boson Erajuanrojochacon
The document discusses the Standard Model of particle physics and the role of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) following the discovery of the Higgs boson. It provides background on the development of the Standard Model and discovery of its key particles like quarks, gluons, and weak bosons. It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle collider built to explore physics at the highest energies and probe unanswered questions left by the Standard Model. Four main detectors at the LHC, including ATLAS and CMS, precisely measure collision products to explore fundamental particles and forces.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It begins with a brief history of elementary particles dating back to Democritus' idea of atoms. It then describes the four fundamental forces and some of the key particles discovered over time, including the electron, photon, neutron, and neutrino. The document classifies particles as fermions or bosons based on their statistics and behavior. It provides details on leptons, quarks, mesons, and baryons - the main constituents of matter. In closing, it mentions neutrinos, glueballs, and the interface between particle physics and cosmology.
Dark matter is matter that does not emit or absorb light or radiation and can only be detected through its gravitational effects. It makes up 23% of the universe's energy. Its exact particle nature remains unknown. Dark matter was first hypothesized to account for discrepancies between the mass of large astronomical objects determined by their gravitational influence versus the mass calculated from the visible matter they contain. Understanding dark matter is important because it and dark energy make up over 90% of the universe's total energy.
Properties and applications of graphene.
More introductions about graphene are in Alfa Chemistry.
https://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/graphene-38.htm
CERN, Particle Physics and the Large Hadron Colliderjuanrojochacon
The document discusses particle physics research done at CERN using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, with a 27km long tunnel housing four detectors. The LHC collides protons together at high energies to study their constituent particles like quarks and search for new particles like the Higgs boson. It also allows researchers to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang and potentially observe mini black holes or extra dimensions at very small scales. The future includes planning for an even larger successor to the LHC to continue advancing understanding of fundamental physics.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a 17-mile long particle accelerator that smashes protons together at nearly the speed of light to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang and answer fundamental questions about the universe. It aims to detect elusive particles like the Higgs boson and help explain mysteries like dark matter. The LHC accelerates two beams of protons in opposite directions around its ring and uses powerful magnets to force the beams to collide in four locations, where detectors observe the collision debris to gain insights into physics at the smallest scales.
The Higgs boson is the last “missing piece” of the Standard Model and the 5th member of the boson family (but not a force carrier).
The Higgs is a hypothetical particle that gives mass to all other particles that normally have mass.
The Higgs particle creates a Higgs field that permeates spacetime.
The Higgs particle and its corresponding field are critical to the understanding and validation of the SM, since the Higgs is deemed responsible for giving particles their mass.
The elusive Higgs is so central to the SM and the theory on which the whole understanding of matter is based, if the Higgs does not exist (is not detected), we will not be able to explain the origin of mass.
Numerous people chat quietly in a fairly crowded room.
Rajnikanth enters the room causing a disturbance in the field.
Followers cluster and surround Rajnikanth as this group of people forms a “massive object”.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that allows scientists to explore the Higgs field, a fundamental field that exists everywhere and gives particles mass. Confirming the existence of the Higgs field and particle explains several puzzles in physics, such as why some particles have mass and the short range of the weak force. After a 40 year search and construction of the Large Hadron Collider, scientists announced in 2012 the discovery of a new particle with properties matching the predicted Higgs boson, confirming its existence.
The document presents a high-level overview of the Standard Model of particle physics in a series of clickable slides, describing the basic subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up atoms as well as force carrier particles like photons and gluons that enable interactions between fermions. It also discusses theoretical particles like the Higgs boson and graviton that could help explain fundamental forces and properties like mass. The slides pose additional questions about applying the model to heavier generations of particles and alternative atomic structures.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that is responsible for giving mass to other particles. It was proposed in 1964 and discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. The Higgs boson is extremely short-lived, decaying within one billionth of a trillionth of a second. Its discovery helps scientists better understand how particles acquire mass and could provide insights into cosmic inflation, dark matter, and the composition of the universe.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Atoms and Periodic Table of the Elements unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 2000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 15 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: -Atoms (Atomic Force Microscopes), Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment, Cathode Tube, Atoms, Fundamental Particles, The Nucleus, Isotopes, AMU, Size of Atoms and Particles, Quarks, Recipe of the Universe, Atomic Theory, Atomic Symbols, #'s, Valence Electrons, Octet Rule, SPONCH Atoms, Molecules, Hydrocarbons (Structure), Alcohols (Structure), Proteins (Structure), Periodic Table of the Elements, Organization of Periodic Table, Transition Metals, Electron Negativity, Non-Metals, Metals, Metalloids, Atomic Bonds, Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, Metallic Bonds, Ionization, and much more.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
In particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons.
The simplest description of the mechanism adds a Higgs field to the Standard Model gauge theory. The symmetry breaking triggers conversion of the longitudinal field component to the Higgs boson, which interacts with itself and (at least a part of) the other fields in the theory, so as to produce mass terms for the Z and W bosons.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Matter, Energy, and the Environment Unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 3,500+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 20 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: Matter, Dark Matter, Elements and Compounds, States of Matter, Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasma, Law Conservation of Matter, Physical Change, Chemical Change, Gas Laws, Charles Law, Avogadro's Law, Ideal Gas Law, Pascal's Law, Archimedes Principle, Buoyancy, Seven Forms of Energy, Nuclear Energy, Electromagnet Spectrum, Waves / Wavelengths, Light (Visible Light), Refraction, Diffraction, Lens, Convex / Concave, Radiation, Electricity, Lightning, Static Electricity, Magnetism, Coulomb's Law, Conductors, Insulators, Semi-conductors, AC and DC current, Amps, Watts, Resistance, Magnetism, Faraday's Law, Compass, Relativity, Einstein, and E=MC2, Energy, First Law of Thermodynamics, Second Law of Thermodynamics-Third Law of Thermodynamics, Industrial Processes, Environmental Studies, The 4 R's, Sustainability, Human Population Growth, Carrying Capacity, Green Design, Renewable Forms of Energy (The 11th Hour)
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It describes how the particle was theorized in 1964 by Peter Higgs and others to help explain how elementary particles acquire mass. Researchers at CERN used the Large Hadron Collider to finally detect the Higgs boson in 2012 through high-energy collisions of protons, confirming its existence after decades of experiments. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a major achievement that validated the Standard Model of particle physics.
The document provides an overview of the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the fundamental particles and forces. It explains that particles are made up of even smaller particles called quarks and electrons. Forces are carried by particles called force carriers, such as photons for electromagnetism and gluons for the strong force. The Standard Model includes three generations of matter particles that are duplicates of the first generation but with increasing mass. While the Standard Model is very successful, it leaves many questions unanswered which has led physicists to develop new theories and search for new particles.
SEMICONDUCTORS,BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS,FERMI-DIRAC PROBABILITY,DISTRIBUTION FUN...A K Mishra
This PPT contains valence band,conduction band& forbidden energy gap,Free carrier charge density,intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,Conductivity in semiconductors
1. Elementary particles are classified as either bosons or fermions based on their spin. Bosons have integer spin while fermions have half-integer spin.
2. Bosons include photons, gluons, and mesons. Fermions include leptons like electrons and muons, and hadrons like protons, neutrons, and baryons.
3. Four fundamental forces - strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravity - interact between elementary particles and hold matter together. The strong force binds quarks, the weak force governs radioactive decay, and gravity and electromagnetism are familiar long-range forces.
The document discusses the discovery of the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It provides background on the development of the standard model of particle physics and the theoretical prediction of the Higgs boson. Experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider aimed to detect the Higgs boson, and in 2012 they announced evidence of a new boson that matches the properties of the Higgs boson, with its existence being confirmed in 2013. Finding the Higgs boson was a major milestone in understanding particle physics and mass.
The Standard Model and the LHC in the Higgs Boson Erajuanrojochacon
The document discusses the Standard Model of particle physics and the role of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) following the discovery of the Higgs boson. It provides background on the development of the Standard Model and discovery of its key particles like quarks, gluons, and weak bosons. It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle collider built to explore physics at the highest energies and probe unanswered questions left by the Standard Model. Four main detectors at the LHC, including ATLAS and CMS, precisely measure collision products to explore fundamental particles and forces.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It begins with a brief history of elementary particles dating back to Democritus' idea of atoms. It then describes the four fundamental forces and some of the key particles discovered over time, including the electron, photon, neutron, and neutrino. The document classifies particles as fermions or bosons based on their statistics and behavior. It provides details on leptons, quarks, mesons, and baryons - the main constituents of matter. In closing, it mentions neutrinos, glueballs, and the interface between particle physics and cosmology.
Dark matter is matter that does not emit or absorb light or radiation and can only be detected through its gravitational effects. It makes up 23% of the universe's energy. Its exact particle nature remains unknown. Dark matter was first hypothesized to account for discrepancies between the mass of large astronomical objects determined by their gravitational influence versus the mass calculated from the visible matter they contain. Understanding dark matter is important because it and dark energy make up over 90% of the universe's total energy.
Properties and applications of graphene.
More introductions about graphene are in Alfa Chemistry.
https://www.alfa-chemistry.com/products/graphene-38.htm
CERN, Particle Physics and the Large Hadron Colliderjuanrojochacon
The document discusses particle physics research done at CERN using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, with a 27km long tunnel housing four detectors. The LHC collides protons together at high energies to study their constituent particles like quarks and search for new particles like the Higgs boson. It also allows researchers to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang and potentially observe mini black holes or extra dimensions at very small scales. The future includes planning for an even larger successor to the LHC to continue advancing understanding of fundamental physics.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a 17-mile long particle accelerator that smashes protons together at nearly the speed of light to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang and answer fundamental questions about the universe. It aims to detect elusive particles like the Higgs boson and help explain mysteries like dark matter. The LHC accelerates two beams of protons in opposite directions around its ring and uses powerful magnets to force the beams to collide in four locations, where detectors observe the collision debris to gain insights into physics at the smallest scales.
THE WONDER OF CERN...by Stefano GallizioUccioPwer96
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is a 27 km ring of magnets located in Geneva, Switzerland that accelerates particle beams to extremely high energies in order to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang. Five large experiments - ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb, and TOTEM - are located underground around the LHC's four collision points to study what occurs when the particle beams collide at high energies, helping physicists better understand fundamental particles and forces. No one knows what will result from these unprecedented high-energy collisions.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and ATLAS detector:
- The LHC is a large particle accelerator that collides beams of protons around a 4.3km ring to study particle physics.
- ATLAS is one of the main detectors at the LHC, measuring 46m long and weighing 7,000 tonnes.
- The LHC and ATLAS involve thousands of physicists from 34 countries and will collect 1 petabyte of collision data per year over 10 years of operation to study rare particles like the top quark.
The OpenStack Cloud at CERN - OpenStack NordicTim Bell
The document discusses the CERN OpenStack cloud, which provides compute resources for the Large Hadron Collider experiment at CERN. It details the scale of the cloud, including over 6,700 hypervisors, 190,000 cores, and 20,000 VMs. It also describes the various use cases served, wide range of hardware, and operations of the cloud, including a retirement campaign and network migration to Neutron.
Quadrupole and Time of Flight Mass analysers.Gagangowda58
Description about important mass analysers Quadrupole and TOF: Principle, Construction and Working, Advantages and Disadvantages and their Applications.
Particle accelerators and colliders have been used since the early 20th century to study particle physics. Colliders accelerate two beams of particles to high energies and allow them to collide. Past colliders included the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN and the Tevatron at Fermilab. The current collider is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. Future proposed colliders include the International Linear Collider (ILC).
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator, located at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. It was built between 1998-2008 by over 10,000 scientists from over 100 countries. The LHC accelerates beams of hadrons, like protons, to energies of 7 TeV per particle and collides them to study fundamental particles and forces. Its main goals are to discover the Higgs boson, investigate dark matter and extra dimensions, and recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang. It has four main detecting cabins - ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb - that collect and analyze data from the high-energy collisions.
Presentación Tesis Doctoral Carmen Iglesias Escudero EnergyFlow AlgorithmCARMEN IGLESIAS
The document discusses energy flow and clustering algorithms used to reconstruct physics objects in the ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider. It first provides background on the LHC, ATLAS detector, and jet physics. It then describes an energy flow algorithm that combines calorimeter energy measurements with tracking information to improve jet energy resolution. This is important because two-thirds of a jet's energy is from charged particles. The document also discusses using Atlfast software to simulate jet reconstruction and analyze particle composition within jets using different clustering algorithms and radius parameters.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN will collide protons and lead ions at very high energies to recreate conditions shortly after the Big Bang. It consists of a 27km ringed accelerator and four large detectors that will observe collision outcomes. The LHC is an enormously complex engineering project involving accelerating particles to near light speed using superconducting magnets and detecting collision results using specialized detector technologies to help explain fundamental questions in physics.
Mass spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to identify unknown compounds and elucidate molecular structures. It involves ionizing molecules and separating the resulting ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Key components include an ion source, mass analyzer, and detector. Common ionization techniques are electron impact and chemical ionization. Mass spectrometers can be classified based on the type of mass analyzer used, such as magnetic sector, quadrupole, time-of-flight, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance, and tandem instruments. Tandem MS allows preselected ions to be fragmented and analyzed.
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that ionizes chemical species and sorts the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio. It operates by first converting molecules to ions, then separating and detecting these ions. The three main components are an ion source, a mass analyzer, and a detector. The document discusses the basic principles of mass spectrometry including ionization methods like electron impact ionization and chemical ionization. It also describes several types of mass analyzers such as quadrupole, time-of-flight, and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance analyzers. Common detectors include Faraday cups, electron multipliers, and photomultiplier tubes. Mass spectrometry is used to determine molecular structure and analyze organic and inorganic
Charge exchange and spectroscopy with isolated highly-charged ionsAstroAtom
This document discusses using Penning traps to capture and store highly charged ions extracted from an electron beam ion trap (EBIT) for charge exchange and optical spectroscopy studies. Specific ion species captured include Ne and Ar ions. The Penning traps use permanent magnets and allow storage of ions for up to 1 second. Future work aims to study hydrogen-like ions using a new apparatus combining a Penning trap with a miniature EBIT ion source.
1. The document discusses using synchrotron radiation for x-ray spectroscopy techniques to study 3d transition metal oxides.
2. It introduces x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS) as two techniques that can probe core electron excitations and provide information about materials' electronic and magnetic properties.
3. Synchrotron radiation facilities provide tunable x-ray energies, polarization control, and high photon fluxes needed for these resonant spectroscopy techniques to study transitions in transition metal oxides.
This document discusses types of radiation, their interaction with matter, and radiation detectors. It covers the following types of radiation: photons (gamma rays and x-rays), neutrons, electrons, ions, protons, and alpha particles. It describes the processes of photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production for photon interaction, as well as scattering, capture and other interactions for neutrons. The document also discusses why radiation detection is important and gives examples of different types of radiation detectors like gas detectors, scintillation detectors, and semiconductor detectors.
Big Questions, Small Particles and the Optimism of Curiosity discusses CERN's mission to push forward the frontiers of knowledge about the Big Bang and early universe by studying small particles using large particle accelerators. It summarizes CERN's goals of understanding fundamental physics, developing new technologies, and training scientists. The document outlines recent discoveries made with the Large Hadron Collider, including the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson particle, and discusses many open questions that remain. It emphasizes that fundamental discoveries often raise more questions and that our understanding of nature is still evolving.
This document provides information about particle physics research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It begins with an overview of the LHC's goal of colliding protons at high energies to recreate conditions after the Big Bang. It then discusses what particle physicists study, including probing unanswered questions about the standard model and exploring new frontiers like dark matter. The document outlines the structure and function of the LHC, including its racetrack tunnel, proton beams, superconducting magnets, and detectors that analyze collision data. Key topics of interest to physicists, such as the Higgs particle, are also summarized.
This document discusses various types of particle detectors used in high energy physics experiments. It describes semiconductor detectors, solid state detectors, ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller detectors, and photoconductive detectors. It also discusses applications of these detectors at particle physics labs like LHC, CMS, ATLAS, and SLAC. Specific detectors at the BESIII experiment are described, including the drift chamber, electromagnetic calorimeter, and muon counter. In conclusion, the document outlines how these detectors are important for solving physics problems and their applications in high energy physics.
Localising Charged Particles by Electric and Magnetic Fields
the trapping of charged particles
Prepared By : Mohamed Fayed Mohamed Ali
Email : M10513fayed@gmail.com
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that can be used for chemical analysis such as measuring elemental composition, analyzing molecular structures, and determining isotopic ratios. It works by ionizing chemical compounds and separating the resulting ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Key components include an ion source, a mass analyzer, and a detector. Common ionization sources are electron ionization, chemical ionization, and desorption ionization techniques like MALDI. Common mass analyzers include quadrupole, time-of-flight, and magnetic sector instruments. Chromatography techniques like gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography are often used with mass spectrometry to separate mixtures prior to analysis.
1) Rutherford conducted an experiment where he bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles. He observed that most alpha particles passed through without deflection, but some were deflected at large angles, indicating the positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a small nucleus.
2) Bohr modified Rutherford's model by proposing electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed, quantized energy levels. Electrons can jump between these levels, emitting or absorbing photons of specific frequencies.
3) Frank and Hertz conducted an experiment where they observed sharp drops in current through a mercury vapor cathode at multiples of 4.9V. This provided direct evidence that electrons in atoms can only occupy discrete energy levels, as predicted by Bohr
Project report on LHC " Large Hadron Collider " MachineJyotismat Raul
This is a Project report on "LARGE HADRON COLLIDER MACHINE ". So just have a look and get some knowledge and Few known facts about this Mega new on demand topic.
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- The document describes the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) particle accelerator located at CERN. It is made up of several components that sequentially accelerate protons to higher energies, including Linac 2, the Proton Synchrotron Booster, the Proton Synchrotron, and the Super Proton Synchrotron.
- The largest component is the LHC, which is 27 kilometers in circumference and accelerates the protons to an energy of 7 TeV before they collide in detectors. It requires operating at a temperature colder than outer space to function.
- The document provides details on each component of the accelerator chain and their purpose in accelerating the protons up to collision energy in the LHC. It
This document discusses graphics hardware components. It describes various graphics input devices like the mouse, joystick, light pen etc. and how they are either analog or digital. It then covers common graphics output devices such as CRT displays, plasma displays, LCDs and 3D viewing systems. It provides details on the internal components and working of CRT displays. It also discusses graphics storage formats and the architecture of raster and random graphics systems.
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This document provides instructions for packaging and deploying a J2EE application that was developed in IBM Rational Application Developer. It describes resetting the database to its original state, exporting the application as an EAR file, using the WebSphere administrative console to install the EAR file on the application server, and testing the application in a web browser. The goal is to simulate taking an application developed in a development environment and deploying it to a production server.
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1. LHC : construction and operation
Jö Wenninger
rg
CERN Beams Department / Operation group
LNF Spring School 'Bruno Touschek' - May 2010
Part 1:
•Introduction to accelerator
physics
•LHC magnet and layout
•Luminosity and interaction
regions
•Injection and filling schemes
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 1
2. Outline
• The LHC challenges
• Introduction to magnets and particle focusing
• LHC magnets and arc layout Part 1
• LHC luminosity and interaction regions
• Injection and filling schemes
• Machine protection
Part 2
• Incident 19th Sept. 2008 and consequences
• LHC operation
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 2
3. LHC History
1982 : First studies for the LHC project
1983 : Z0/W discovered at SPS proton antiproton collider (SppbarS)
1989 : Start of LEP operation (Z/W boson-factory)
1994 : Approval of the LHC by the CERN Council
1996 : Final decision to start the LHC construction
2000 : Last year of LEP operation above 100 GeV
2002 : LEP equipment removed
2003 : Start of LHC installation
2005 : Start of LHC hardware commissioning
2008 : Start of (short) beam commissioning
Powering incident on 19th Sept.
2009 : Repair, re-commissioning and beam commissioning
2010 : Start of a 2 year run at 3.5 TeV/beam
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 3
4. The Large Hadron Collider LHC
Installed in the 26.7 km LEP tunnel
Depth of 70-140 m Lake of Geneva
g
C rin
LH
CMS, Totem
LHCb
Control Room
SP
S r
ing
ATLAS, LHCf
ALICE
4
17.03.2010 Der LHC
5. Tunnel circumference 26.7 km, tunnel diameter 3.8 m
Depth : ~ 70-140 m – tunnel is inclined by ~ 1.4%
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 5
6. LHC Layout
8 arcs. IR5:CMS
8 straight sections (LSS), 2 Beam dump
m
ea blocks
~ 700 m long. B 1
The beams exchange their
e am
B IR6: Beam
positions (inside/outside) in 4
points to ensure that both rings IR4: RF + Beam dumping system
have the same circumference ! instrumentation
IR3: Momentum IR7: Betatron
collimation (normal collimation (normal
conducting magnets) conducting magnets)
IR8: LHC-B
IR2:ALICE
IR1: ATLAS
Injection ring 1 Injection ring 2
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 6
7. LHC – yet another collider?
The LHC surpasses existing accelerators/colliders in 2 aspects :
The energy of the beam of 7 TeV that is achieved within the size constraints
of the existing 26.7 km LEP tunnel.
LHC dipole field 8.3 T A factor 2 in field
HERA/Tevatron ~4 T A factor 4 in size
The luminosity of the collider that will reach unprecedented values for a
hadron machine:
LHC pp ~ 1034 cm-2 s-1
A factor 30
Tevatron pp 3x10 cm s
32 -2 -1
in luminosity
SppbarS pp 6x1030 cm-2 s-1
The combination of very high field magnets and very high beam intensities
required to reach the luminosity targets makes operation of the LHC a great
challenge !
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 7
8. Luminosity challenges
The event rate N for a physics process with cross-section σ is proprotional to
the collider Luminosity L:
N = Lσ k = number of bunches = 2808
N = no. protons per bunch = 1.15×10 11
kN 2 f f = revolution frequency = 11.25 kHz
L= σ * x, σ * y = beam sizes at collision point (hor./vert.) = 16 µ m
4πσ xσ *
*
y
To maximize L: High beam “brillance” N/ ε
• Many bunches (k) (particles per phase space
• Many protons per bunch (N) volume)
• A small beam size σ * u = ( β * ε ) 1/2 Injector chain performance !
Small envelope
β *
: the beam envelope (optics) Optics
Strong focusing !
ε : is the phase space volume occupied property
Beam property
by the beam (constant along the ring).
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 8
10. Accelerator concept
Charged particles are accelerated, guided and confined by electromagnetic fields.
- Bending: Dipole magnets
- Focusing: Quadrupole magnets
- Acceleration: RF cavities
In synchrotrons, they are ramped together synchronously to match beam energy.
- Chromatic aberration: Sextupole magnets
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 10
11. Bending
→ → → → Force
Lorentz force
Magnetic
rigidity
LHC: ρ = 2.8 km given by LEP tunnel!
To reach p = 7 TeV/c given a bending radius of ρ = 2805 m:
Bending field : B = 8.33 Tesla
Superconducting magnets
To collide two counter-rotating proton beams, the beams must be in separate
vaccum chambers (in the bending sections) with opposite B field direction.
There are actually 2 LHCs and the magnets have a 2-magnets-in-one design!
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 11
12. Bending Fields
I
II
B
B field
p
B F force
F p
Two-in-one magnet design
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 12
13. Focusing
N S
F
By
y
F
x
S N
Transverse focusing is achieved with quadrupole
x magnets, which act on the beam like an optical lens.
Linear increase of the magnetic field along the axes
(no effect on particles on axis).
y Focusing in one plane, de-focusing in the other!
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 13
14. Accelerator lattice
horizontal plane
Focusing in both planes is achieved by a
succession of focusing and de-focusing
quadrupole magnets :
The FODO structure
vertical plane
14
15. Alternating gradient lattice
One can find an arrangement of
quadrupole magnets that provides net
focusing in both planes (“strong
focusing”).
Dipole magnets keep the particles on
the circular orbit.
Quadrupole magnets focus alternatively
in both planes.
The lattice effectively constitutes a
s particle trap!
y
x
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 15
16. LHC arc lattice
QF dipole decapole QD sextupole QF
magnets magnets magnets
small sextupole
corrector magnets
LHC Cell - Length about 110 m (schematic layout)
Dipole- und Quadrupol magnets
– Provide a stable trajectory for particles with nominal momentum.
Sextupole magnets
– Correct the trajectories for off momentum particles (‚chromatic‘ errors).
Multipole-corrector magnets
– Sextupole - and decapole corrector magnets at end of dipoles
– Used to compensate field imperfections if the dipole magnets. To stabilize trajectories for
particles at larger amplitudes – beam lifetime !
One rarely talks about the multi-pole magnets, but they are
essential for good machine performance !
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 16
17. Beam envelope
The focusing structure (mostly defined by the quadrupoles: gradient,
length, number, distance) defines the transverse beam envelope.
The function that describes the beam envelope is the so-called ‘β’-function
(betatron function):
• In the LHC arcs the optics follows a regular pattern – regular FODO structure.
• In the long straight sections, the betatron function is less regular to fulfill various
constraints: injection, collision point focusing…
QF QD QF QD QF QD QF
The envelope peaks in
the focusing elements !
Vertical Horizontal
Betatron functions in a simple FODO cell
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 17
18. Beam emittance and beam size
For an ensemble of particles:
The transverse emittance , ε, is the area of the
phase-space ellipse.
Beam size = projection on X (Y) axis.
The beam size σ at any point along the accelerator
is given by (neglecting the contribution from energy
spread):
σ = Envelope × Emittance = β ε
For unperturbed proton beams, the normalized emittance ε n is
conserved:
ε n = εγ = constant γ = Lorentz factor
The beam size shrinks with β εn 1
energy: σ= ∝
γ γ
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 18
19. Why does the transverse emittance shrink?
The acceleration is purely longitudinal, i.e the transverse momentum is not
affected:
pt = constant
The emittance is nothing but a measure of <pt>.
To maintain the focusing strength, all magnetic fields are kept proportional to E
(γ), including the quadrupole gradients.
Withconstant <pt> and increasing quadrupole gradients, the transverse
excursion of the particles becomes smaller and smaller !
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 19
20. LHC beam sizes
Beta-function at the LHC
β = 0.5 ÷ 5'000 m
β = 30 ÷ 180 m ARC
Nominal LHC normalized emittance :
εn = εγ = 3.5 µm
Example LHC arc, peak β = 180 m
Energy ε (nm) σ (mm)
(GeV)
450 7.2 1.14
3500 0.93 0.41
7000 0.47 0.29
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 20
21. Acceleration
Acceleration is performed with electric fields fed into Radio-Frequency (RF)
cavities. RF cavities are basically resonators tuned to a selected frequency.
To accelerate a proton to 7 TeV, a 7 TV potential must be provided to the beam:
In circular accelerators the acceleration is done in small steps, turn after turn.
At the LHC the acceleration from 450 GeV to 7 TeV lasts ~20 minutes, with an
average energy gain of ~0.5 MeV on each turn.
E(t )
s
21
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010
22. LHC RF system
The LHC RF system operates at 400 MHz.
It is composed of 16 superconducting cavities, 8 per beam.
Peak accelerating voltage of 16 MV/beam.
For LEP at 104 GeV : 3600 MV/beam !
Synchrotron
radiation loss
LHC @ 3.5 TeV 0.42 keV/turn
LHC @ 7 TeV 6.7 keV /turn
LEP @ 104 GeV ~3 GeV /turn
The nominal LHC beam radiates a
sufficient amount of visible photons
to be actually observable !
(total power ~ 0.2 W/m)
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 22
23. Visible protons !
Some of the energy radiation by the LHC
protons is emitted as visible light. It can
be extracted with a set of mirrors to image
the beams in real time.
This is a powerful tool to understand the
beam size evolution. Protons are very
sensitive to perturbations, keeping their
emittance small is always a challenge.
Flying wire LHC
Synch. light
Flying wire SPS
(injector)
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 23
24. Cavities in the tunnel
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 24
25. RF buckets and bunches
The particles
oscillate back
The particles are trapped in the RF voltage:
RF Voltage and forth in this gives the bunch structure
time/energy
2.5 ns time
∆E LHC bunch spacing = 25 ns = 10 buckets ⇔ 7.5 m
RF bucket
time
2.5 ns
450 GeV 3.5 TeV
RMS bunch length 12.8 cm 5.8 cm
RMS energy spread 0.031% 0.02%
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 25
27. Superconductivity
The very high DIPOLE field of 8.3 Tesla required
to achieve 7 TeV/c can only be obtained with
superconducting magnets !
The material determines:
Tc critical temperature
Bc critical field
The cable production determines:
Jc critical current density
Lower temperature ⇒ increased current density ⇒
higher fields. Bc
Applied field [T]
Typical for NbTi @ 4.2 K
Normal state
2000 A/mm2 @ 6T
To reach 8-10 T, the temperature must be lowered Superconducting
to 1.9 K – superfluid Helium ! state
Tc
Temperature [K]
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 27
28. The superconducting cable
∅6 µm
∅1 mm
A.Verweij
Typical value for operation at 8T and 1.9 K: 800 A
width 15 mm
Rutherford cable
A.Verweij
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 28
29. Coils for dipoles
Dipole length 15 m
I = 11’800 A @ 8.3 T
The coils must be aligned very
precisely to ensure a good field quality
(i.e. ‘pure’ dipole)
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 29
30. Ferromagnetic iron
Non-magnetic collars
Superconducting coil
Beam tube
Steel cylinder for
Helium
Insulation vacuum
Vacuum tank
Supports
Weight (magnet + cryostat) ~ 30 tons, length 15 m
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 30
Rüdiger Schmidt 30
31. Regular arc:
Magnets
1232 main
dipoles +
3700 multipole
392 main quadrupoles + corrector
2500 corrector magnets magnets
(dipole, sextupole, octupole) (sextupole,
octupole,
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 decapole)
J. Wenninger - ETHZ - December 2005 31 31
32. Regular arc:
Connection via
service module and Cryogenics
jumper
Static bath of superfluid
Supply and recovery of helium at 1.9 K in cooling
helium with 26 km long loops of 110 m length
cryogenic distribution
line
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010
J. Wenninger - ETHZ - December 2005 32 32
33. Regular arc:
Beam vacuum for
Beam 1 + Beam Vacuum
2
Insulation vacuum for the
Insulation vacuum for magnet cryostats
the cryogenic
distribution line
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010
J. Wenninger - ETHZ - December 2005 33 33
36. Complex interconnects
Many complex connections of super-conducting cable that will
be buried in a cryostat once the work is finished.
This SC cable carries 12’000 A
for the main quadrupole magnets
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010
CERN visit McEwen 36
37. Magnet cooling scheme
10000
SOLID
1000
CRITICAL POINT
λ line
HeII HeI
P [kPa]
100
Pressurized He II
GAS
10
Saturated He II
1
1 10
T [K]
He II: super-fluid
o Very low viscosity
o Very high thermal conductivity
Courtesy S. Claudet
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 37
38. Cryogenics
Pt 5
Pt 4 Pt 6
8 x 18kW @ 4.5 K
1’800 SC magnets
Pt 3 24 km & 20 Distribution
Cryoplant kW @ 1.8 K Pt 7
Present Version
36’000 t @ 1.9K
130 t He inventory
Pt 2 Pt 8
Pt 1.8 Pt 1
Cryogenic plant
Courtesy S. Claudet
Grid power ~32 MW
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 38
39. Cool down
First cool-down of LHC sectors
Cool-down time to 1.9 K is nowadays ~4 weeks/sector
[sector = 1/8 LHC]
300
250
Temperature [K]
200
150
100
50
0
12- 10- 07- 04- 03- 31- 28- 26- 23- 21-Jul- 18- 15-
Nov- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- 2008 Aug- Sep-
2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008 2008
ARC56_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC78_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC81_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC23_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST
ARC67_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC34_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC12_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST ARC45_MAGS_TTAVG.POSST
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 39
40. Vacuum chamber
The beams circulate in two ultra-high
vacuum chambers, P ~ 10-10 mbar.
50 mm
A Copper beam screen protects the bore of
the magnet from heat deposition due to
image currents, synchrotron light etc from
the beam.
The beam screen is cooled to T = 4-20 K.
36 mm
Beam screen
Magnet bore
Cooling channel (Helium)
Beam envel (± 4 σ)
~ 1.8 mm @ 7 TeV
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 40
42. Luminosity
Let us look at the different factors in this formula, and what we can do to
maximize L, and what limitations we may encounter !!
kN 2 f
L=
4πσ xσ *
*
y
f : the revolution frequency is given by the circumference, f=11.246 kHz.
N : the bunch population – N=1.15x1011 protons
- Injectors (brighter beams)
- Collective interactions of the particles
- Beam encounters
k : the number of bunches – k=2808 For k = 1:
- Injectors (more beam) L = 3.5 × 1030 cm −2 s −1
- Collective interactions of the particles
- Interaction regions
- Beam encounters
σ* : the size at the collision point – σ*y=σ*x=16 µm
- Injectors (brighter beams)
- More focusing – stronger quadrupoles
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 42
43. Collective (in-)stability
The electromagnetic fields of a bunch interact with the vacuum chamber walls (finite
resistivity !), cavities, discontinuities etc that it encounters:
The fields act back on the bunch itself or on following bunches.
Since the fields induced by of a bunch increase with bunch intensity, the bunches may
become COLLECTIVELY unstable beyond a certain intensity, leading to poor lifetime
or massive looses intensity loss.
Such effects can be very strong in the LHC injectors, and they will also affect the LHC –
in particular because we have a lot of carbon collimators (see later) that have a very
bad influence on beam stability !
limits the intensity per bunch and per beam !
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 43
44. ‘Beam-beam’ interaction
Y When a particle of one beam encounters the
opposing beam at the collision point, it senses
the fields of the opposing beam.
Due to the typically Gaussian shape of the
F o rc e beams in the transverse direction, the field
(force) on this particle is non-linear, in
particular at large amplitudes.
Quadrupole e lens focal length depends on amplitude !
Q u a d r u p o le L n s e
The effect of the non-linear fields can become
Y so strong (when the beams are intense) that
large amplitude particles become unstable and
are lost from the machine:
poor lifetime
F o rc e background
THE INTERACTION OF THE BEAMS SETS A
LIMIT ON THE BUNCH INTENSITY!
Beam(-beam) n lens
B eam - B eam Le se
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 44
45. From arc to collision point
CMS
collision
point
ARC cells ARC cells
Fits through the
hole of a needle!
Collision point size @ 7 TeV, β* = 0.5 m (= β-function at the collision point):
CMS & ATLAS : 16 µm
Collision point size @ 3.5 TeV, β* = 2 m:
All points : 45 µm
J. Wenninger LNF Spring School, May 2010 45
46. Limits to β*
The more one squeezes the beam at the IP (smaller β*) the larger it becomes
in the surrounding quadrupoles (‘triplets’):
Small size
Smaller the size at IP:
Huge size !!
Larger divergence (phase
space conservation !)
Huge size !! Faster beam size growth in
the space from IP to first
quadrupole !
Aperture in the ‘triplet’
quadrupoles around the IR
limits the focusing !
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47. Combining the beams for collisions
quadrupole quadrupole
Q4 Q4
quadrupole recombination separation inner quadrupole inner quadrupole separation recombination quadrupole
Q5 dipole dipole (warm) triplet triplet dipole dipole Q5
beam II ATLAS
or CMS
beam
distance
194 mm
beam I
collision point
24 m
200 m
Example for an LHC insertion with ATLAS or CMS
The 2 LHC beams must be brought together to collide.
Over ~260 m, the beams circulate in the same vacuum chamber. They are
~120 long distance beam encounters in total in the 4 IRs.
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48. Crossing angles
Since every collision adds to our ‘Beam-beam budget’ we must avoid un-necessary
direct beam encounters where the beams share a common vacuum:
COLLIDE WITH A CROSSING ANGLE IN ONE PLANE !
There is a price to pay - a reduction of the luminosity due to the finite bunch length and
the non-head on collisions:
L reduction of ~17%
IP
Crossing planes & angles
•ATLAS Vertical 280 µrad
7.5 m •CMS Horizontal 280 µrad
•LHCb Horizontal 300 µrad
•ALICE Vertical 400 µrad
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49. Separation and crossing : example of ATLAS
Horizontal plane: the beams are combined and then separated
194 mm ATLAS IP
~ 260 m
Common vacuum chamber
Vertical plane: the beams are deflected to produce a crossing angle at the IP
Not to scale !
~ 7 mm
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52. Tevatron I
The Tevatron is presently the ‘energy frontier’ collider in operation at FNAL, with a
beam energy of 980 GeV and a size of ~ ¼LHC (about same size than SPS).
It is the first super-conducting collider ever build.
It collides proton and anti-proton bunches that circulate in opposite directions in the
SAME vacuum chamber.
One of the problems at the TEVATRON are the long-distance encounters of the
bunches in the arc sections. A complicated separation scheme with electrostatic
elements has to be used:
Tricky to operate !!
E E
52
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53. Tevatron II
The Tevatron has undergone a number of remarkable upgrades and it presently
collides 36 proton with 36 anti-proton bunches (k=36), with bunch populations (N)
similar to the ones of the LHC (but there are always fewer anti-protons !).
Compare LHC and Tevatron:
kN 2 f
L=
4πσ xσ *
*
y
fTevatron ≈ 4 fLHC Tevatron gets a factor 4 ‘for free’ due to ring size !!
kLHC ≈ 100 kTevatron LLHC ≈ 30 LTevatron
N2/(σx σy) ~ equal
Luminosity gain of LHC comes basically from
the number of bunches (k) !!
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55. Beam 2
5
Beam 1 4 LHC 6
7
3
TI8
2 SPS 8
TI2
protons Booster 1
LINACS Top energy/GeV Circumference/m
CPS
Ions Linac 0.05 30
PSB 1.4 157
CPS 26 628 = 4 PSB
SPS 450 6’911 = 11 x PS
LEIR LHC 7000 26’657 = 27/7 x
SPS
Note the energy gain/machine of 10 to 20.
The gain is typical for the useful range of magnets.
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56. Principle of injector cycling
The beams are handed from one accel. to the next or used for its own customers !
B field SPS top energy,
prepare for
SPS transfer … Beam transfer
ramp
SPS waits at
injection to be
filled by PS SPS
B field
time
PS
B
time
PS Booster
time
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57. Principle of injection (and extraction)
Circulating
beam
Kicker B-field
Injected beam
Injecte
d beam
Septum magnet
B time
Kicker magnet
B
Circulating beam
Kicker magnet
A septum dipole magnet (with thin coil) is used to bring the injected beam close to
the circulating beam.
A fast pulsing dipole magnet (‘kicker’) is fired synchronously with the arrival of the
injected beam: deflects the injected beam onto the circulating beam path.
‘Stack’ the injected beams one behind the other.
At the LHC the septum deflects in the horizontal plane, the kicker in the vertical plane
(to fit to the geometry of the tunnels).
Extraction is identical, but the process is reversed !
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59. PS Booster
Constructed in the 70ies to increase the intensity into the PS
Made of four stacked rings
Acceleration to E kin=1.4 GeV
Intensities > 10 13 protons per ring.
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60. Filling the PS with LHC beams
Rings 2,3 & 4 are filled with 2 bunches per ring.
The 6 bunches are transferred to the PS.
x3
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62. Bunch Splitting at the PS
The bunch splitting in the PS is probably the most delicate manipulation for the
production of LHC beams – multiple RF systems with different frequencies:
from 6 injected to 72 extracted bunches
The quality of the splitting is critical for the LHC (uniform intensity in all bunches…).
PS ejection: 320 ns beam gap
72 bunches
72 bunches on h=84
in 1 turn
Quadruple splitting
at 25 GeV
Acceleration 18 bunches
to 25 GeV on h=21
Triple splitting
at 1.4 GeV
PS injection: 6 bunches
2+4 bunches on h=7
bucket
Empty
in 2 batches
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65. Collision schemes
The 400 MHz RF system provides 35’640 possible bunch positions
(buckets) at a distance of 2.5 ns along the LHC circumference.
A priori any of those positions could be filled with a bunch…
The smallest bunch-to-bunch distance is fixed to 25 ns, which is also the
nominal distance: max. number of bunches is 3564.
2.5 ns
…
25 ns
= filled position = bunch position
In practice there are fewer bunches because holes must be provided for
the fast pulsed magnets (kickers) used for injection and dump.
But the LHC and its injectors are very flexible and can operate with many
bunch patterns: from isolated bunches to trains.
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66. Collision point symmetry
= collision point
CMS
Symmetry
ATLAS, ALICE and CMS are positioned axis
on the LEP symmetry axis (8 fold sym.)
LHCb is displaced from the symmetry
axis by 11.25 m <<-->> 37.5 ns. LHC
For filling patterns with many bunches this
is not an issue, but it becomes a bit tricky
with few bunches.
LHCb
by m
d .25
Alice ce
la 11
sp =
Atlas di ns
Cb 7.5
LH x 3
c
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67. Filling pattern example: 1x1
CMS
With 1 bunch/beam, there are 2 collision
points at opposite sides of the ring.
Depending on their position along the
circumference, the 2 bunches can be
made to collide:
in ATLAS and CMS, LHC
OR
in ALICE,
OR
in LHCb,
LHCb
but never in all experiments at the same
time !! Alice
Atlas
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68. (Some) LHC filling patterns
Schema Nominal bunch No. bunches Comment
distance (ns)
43x43 2025 43 No crossing angle required
156x156 525 156 No crossing angle required
25 ns 25 2808 Nominal p filling
50 ns 50 1404 2010-2011 run target
Ion nominal 100 592 Nominal ion filling
Ion early 1350 62 No crossing angle required
With 43x43 and 156x156, some bunches are displaced (distance ≠ nominal)
to balance the ALICE and LHCb luminosities.
In the multi-bunch schemes (25, 50, 100 ns) there are larger gaps to
accommodate fast injection magnets (‘kickers’) rise times.
There is always a ≥ 3 µs long particle free gap for the beam dump kicker.
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69. Nominal filling pattern
The nominal pattern consists of 39 groups of 72 bunches (spaced by 25 ns), with variable
spacing to accommodate the rise times of the injection and extraction magnets (‘kickers’).
72 bunches
τ5
τ3
b=bunch, e=empty
τ2
τ1
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71. PS - bunch splitting
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72. Injection elements
12 mrad
TED
0.8 mrad
TED
From the LHC Page1
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73. Role of the TDI collimator
The TDI is one of the key injection protection collimators:
Protects the machine in case of (1) missing kicks on injected beam and (2)
asynchronous kicker firing on the circulating beam.
It must be closed around the circulating beam trajectory when the kicker is ON.
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