Lexical and syntactic ambiguity is a natural phenomenon in languages of the world. Generally, languages
are having lexical and syntactic ambiguity based on their prose and verses. Beside human beings, lexical
Ambiguity and polysemy is a big problem for the machine and online translation. For answering this problem and
finding the exact meaning of the word and sentence. the translation should through the context in which the word
is used. This paper deliberates upon types of ambiguity in Pashto and later discusses the kinds of lexical and
grammatical ambiguity in the Pashto data. Pashto lexemes were taken from the phrases, sentences and verses of
the Pashto poetry. 300 ambiguous words and lexemes were analyzed and described through Pashto examples. The
research shows that there were lexical, syntactical, semantic and grammatical ambiguities in Pashto language, and
grammatical ambiguity was described in hierarchal way with in Pashto examples in prose and verses.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYNTAX AND SEMANTICSHENOK SHIHEPO
Syntax and Semantics apply to several different fields such as Linguistics, Computer science and in the Philosophy of Languages. This essay will deliberate on the differences and some commonalities to the meanings of these terms, and their relationship as well.
Vocabulary of Uzbek Language and their Formationijtsrd
This article deals with the Uzbek lexicon, including obsolete words, phrases, terms, figurative expressions and dialects. Tashmuratova Shoira Jalmuratovna "Vocabulary of Uzbek Language and their Formation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46251.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/other/46251/vocabulary-of-uzbek-language-and-their-formation/tashmuratova-shoira-jalmuratovna
An Exploratory Study of Factors Influencing Corporate Sustainability on busin...AkashSharma618775
This study evaluates the effect of corporate sustainability on business performance of manufacturing
industries in USA, from 2012 to 2015. These Manufacturing industries are listed in Corporate Social
Responsibility Hub (CSRHub), Morning Star and Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). All data used in this report
were extracted from 37 manufacturing companies’ Sustainability, corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
annual reports. These companies are of diverse sectors such as Automobile, Health care, consumer goods, food,
beverages and technology. Quantitative method of research is used in this study; this also includes the use of
explanatory and descriptive research design. The main issues to be discussed in this study are Donation, Incident
rate reduction and Water Recycled as the independent variables, while Revenue is the dependent variable. Data
analysis was carried out using the regression analysis, descriptive statistics and correlation. E-views software
generated the data for further analysis. The findings imply that donation has a positive insignificance effect on
revenue, reduced incident rate reduction had positive significance effect on revenue and water recycling has
negative insignificant effect on revenue. In the future researches, larger samples of companies form diverse sectors
and subsectors should be studied to broaden the research on company performance especially the non-financial
aspect.
Impact of ISO9001 Certification on the Beverage Company's Performance: A case...AkashSharma618775
This study tries to shade light on the effect of ISO9001 on Performance of Brewery companies in
Ethiopia. It empirically analyzes the impact of ISO9001 on the performance of brewery company's proxied by
profit of companies during the sample period of 2002-2015.The sample consists three brewery companies namely:
BGI-Ethiopia, Metha-Abo and Dashen brewery companies. The methodology is based on the Fixed effect model
estimator proposed for dynamic panel data, which is strong in the presence of endogenous covariates, allowing for
individual companies fixed effects, heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation. Based on findings, out of the four
independent variables average revenue and dummy of ISO9001 are positive and significant effect on companies
profit i.e an increase (decrease) in average revenue of companies results in a 5.517 percent increase (decrease) in
the company's profit. The result indicates that ISO9001 certification does have a strong significant positive impact
on brewery companies performance. As the result revealed a company's profit increases by 1.052% due to
ISO9001 certification. The other two explanatory variables average cost and natural logarithm of total sale become
statistically insignificant. In sum, the result of the study indicates that Having ISO9001 certification improves the
profitability of the brewery companies. This finding seems to agree with the study done by T. Dejene (2011) on five
brewery companies in Ethiopia and other scholars like D.S. Sharma(2005),M. Pinar(2001) and J. Singles et
al.(2000).
Administrative Behavior and Personal Traits of the School Heads of Bulan Dist...AkashSharma618775
This study determined the administrative behavior and personal traits of the School Heads of Bulan
Districts. The respondents in this study were the forty (40) elementary school heads. A simple random sampling
was used in this study. The survey questionnaire and documentary analysis were the main instrument in gathering
the necessary data supplemented with an observation and an unstructured interview. To determine the
relationship between the administrative behaviors of the school heads to their personal traits, chi-square test of
homogeneity was applied in this study. Appropriate statistical tools such as frequency count, percentage, weighted
mean and ranking were employed for the analysis and interpretation of the gathered data. The study established
that; there is no significant relationship between the administrative behavior of the school heads and their personal
traits. The study recommends that; school heads should be given ample opportunities to assess their personal traits
and administrative behavior so that they may align the said aspects to effective leadership.
This paper is a conversation on the administration challenges that directors are face so as to accomplish
hierarchical objectives. The forward piece of this paper is a conversation about the more extensive Environmental
Factors that influence the advancement of an Organization today. Factors, for example, economy, political and
sociological are been examined assessing an organization's methodology. At the last section there is a conversation
about the HRM division and how significant it is for an organization, considered as a chain between the association
and its representatives. Leadership is an essential idea in present day control. The supervisor has the responsibility
to revise, at times, the standards and regulations that practice to the management protecting for the steering of
folks of the organization, while he sees that positive ideas and rules is basically out of date. Therefore, the
supervisor should break up the responsibilities efficaciously many of the group of workers. The right department
of labour is the maximum essential piece accomplishing strategic dreams. However, a business enterprise’s
method ought to analyse a few external surroundings conditions which can be very critical. Notwithstanding the
CEOs the maximum critical component in a agency is the HRM. For any goal or challenge HRM is responsibly to
discover the ideal human resource offering also the employees with protection making the great for them that
allows you to do their high-quality at the same time as operating. The current, highly competitive and globalised
surroundings requires a great deal extra activation of enterprise than in the beyond for his or her survival and,
predominant, for their development. This activation calls for a thoughts-set exchange, extroversion, management,
modern forms of management, flexibility, velocity of choice-making and harnessing the creativity and dynamism
of the human element. Business growth calls for firstly the existence or locating a leading personality. The
inspirational leader he will form with the senior a vision for the enterprise. Based on the agreed imaginative and
prescient of the leadership group will proceed in shaping the company's medium-time period goal and to broaden
the precise strategy for achieving this aim.
Enhancement on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) operations of th...AkashSharma618775
The study aimed to determine the enhancement on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM)
operations of the schools in the 2nd Congressional District of Sorsogon for the years 2016-2019. It used the
descriptive-survey method since a questionnaire was devised in gathering the primary data as reflected in the
problem. The respondents were the 30DRRM coordinators of the public elementary schools in the 2nd
Congressional District of Sorsogon which were purposively chosen. The statistical tools utilized were frequency
and ranking.
The study revealed that the activities conducted by the school before the disaster were the conduct regular
earthquake and fire drills in rank 1 that were cited by 28 out of 30 respondents which is followed by the conduct of
disaster preparedness orientation with the pupils is favored by 18 respondents that is rank 2. Similarly, 15
respondents mentioned that they meet with PTCA and other stakeholders to discuss the preparedness of the school
in rank 3 then 13 respondents prepare the DRRM plan which is rank 4. Also, the integration of the disaster
preparedness in the lesson was revealed by 10 respondents in rank 5.
During the disaster, the activities were the provision of advisory and announcements about the disaster and
suspending classes as per DepEd guidelines were stated by 20 respondents which are tied in ranks 1 and 2. Then,
the implementation of the DRRM plan was cited by 16 respondents in rank 3 while the tracking of all the school
personnel and learners and coordination with LGU and barangay officials were revealed by 13 respondents that
are tied in ranks 4 and 5.
The activities of the school after the disaster were the conduct of inventory of the damages came out as the most
commonly done activities as cited by 24 respondents in rank 1. Then, the preparation and submission of reports of
damages to the Division Office was mentioned by 18 respondents in rank 2. Meanwhile, the inspection and
assessment of the condition of the infrastructures were revealed by 16 respondents that are tied in ranks 3 and 4.
Also, 13 respondents said that the coordination with the government agencies for immediate assistance was stated
by 13 respondents which is in rank 5.
Moreover, the top three lessons learned of the school after the disaster as revealed by the respondents were the
conducts to capability building activities for increasing the knowledge and skills to cope with the impact of
disasters with frequency of 23, preparedness of schools in time of disasters with frequency of 13, implementing
properly the continuous and sustained conduct of disaster risk assessment with frequency of 11.
Exploring the Marketing Competencies of Women Entrepreneurs in Micro-Small En...AkashSharma618775
This study deals with the marketing competencies and capabilities of women entrepreneurs who own and
manage micro-small- and medium (MSMEs)ventures in traditional and non-traditional lines of activities within
the urban settings in Khartoum State, Sudan. Entrepreneurial and marketing competencies are part of the
dynamic components that contribute to venture survival and success especially for women-owned/ managed MSEs.
This study addresses the perceived knowledge gap in the literature regarding the marketing competencies of
women entrepreneurs, using the marketing mix approach and the resource-based theory. It is a qualitative study
which follows an interpretive approach and applies grounded theory techniques. The study is framed within the
Marketing Mix approach and the resource-based theory highlighted within a gendered perspective. It examines
how women entrepreneurs perceive and apply the marketing function within their MSEs to maintain success
within highly competitive, turbulent and unpredictable markets. In such conditions it is essential to understand
what marketing competencies do these women entrepreneurs are endowed with and utilize while practicing the
marketing function in their entrepreneurial ventures and thrive for high performance and success.
Japonica rice in the domestic market is mainly produced through the contract farming system in
northern Thailand. Thai consumers have misunderstood that Thailand cannot cultivate Japonica rice with good
quality. This study aimed to analyze the acceptability of Thailand’s Japonica rice from the perspectives of Thai
consumers. Its specific objectives were to investigate the consumers’ consumption behaviors for Japanese cuisine
and to evaluate consumer preferences of different Japonica rice choices and attitudes towards Japonica rice
consumption. Data were collected from 385 respondents in Bangkok using the purposive sampling method. The
results indicated that respondents’ consumption behavior of Japanese cuisine in Bangkok was increasing.
Analyzing the preference of different Japonica rice choices found that the respondents preferred JR1 (from
Japan), JR3 (Thailand) and JR2 (from Vietnam), in descending order. JR2 attributes especially smell and soft
sticky texture were like JR3. However, JR3 shared similar qualities to JR1 in terms of smell, flavor and soft sticky
texture. JR3 can be a good alternative choice for Japanese restaurant owners and consumers. In addition, the
higher market price of JR1 creates a competitive opportunity for JR3 in the domestic market. Moreover, their
attitudes towards domestically grown Japonica rice consumption was also positive.
Corporate Governance and Earning Management in Saudi ArabiaAkashSharma618775
The research paper examines the corporate governance and earning management in Saudi Arabia. It
explores certain studies that worked in different areas and discusses their findings. The essential goal of this paper
is to exactly research the impact of the late corporate administration controls presented by Capital Market
Authority (CMA) on compelling income administration hone in Saudi Arabia. Corporate governance theory is
discussed here that elaborates the procedures of organization and different strategies. At that point speculations
are tried utilizing multivariate procedure to figure out whether corporate administration qualities essentially
oblige optional accumulations. The paper also discusses literature of previous studies and some methodologies are
discussed that are important. Three different types of methodologies are described here that are related to
organization. At the end, conclusion is presented.
Effect of market penetration management strategies on performance of Small En...AkashSharma618775
Small businesses in Kenya face a myriad of challenges. Most of the establishments have gone under the
waters due to various reasons including market turbulences. The businesses leave the market as soon as they make
entry. If they stay, they stagnate at the same level they started. The objective of the study was to find out the effect
of market penetration strategies on the performance of small enterprises in Kenya. The study used descriptive
survey design. The study was conducted in Migori County, Kenya. The target population was 4997 which were
businesses registered by the department of Trade of Migori County in 2019. A sample of 481 individuals were
interviewed. This number was derived using Yamane sampling model. Data was collected from business owners
with the help of a structured questionnaire. The researcher used Cronbach’s alpha coeffect to test the reliability of
the study instrument. Data was sorted, sorted and entered using a statistical software program for social sciences
(SPSS). A simple linear regression was used to test the relationship between market penetration management
strategies and performance of small enterprises in Kenya. Pearson Product Moment correlation was employed in
testing the strength of the relationship between market penetration management strategies and growth of small
enterprises in Kenya.
The Impact of Adopting International Auditing Standards on audit quality in S...AkashSharma618775
This study will investigate the Impact of Adopting International Auditing Standards on audit quality in
Saudi Arabia. The current research focuses on Saudi Arabia. This relatively large country in the Middle East is
known for two main things, its oil and Islam. The research objectives can be identified as: To evaluate the current
state of auditing practise in Saudi Arabia, to identify the need for the adoption of international auditing standards
in Saudi Arabia, to identify the challenges in the adoption of international auditing standards in Saudi Arabia, and
to evaluate the impact of the adoption of international auditing standards in Saudi Arabia. The research is
adopting a mixed methods strategy that will combine both qualitative and quantitative research. This research is
making several contributions to the academic literature in adoption International Auditing Standards in devolving
countries in in general, and more specific in Saudi Arabia.
Effect of Knowledge Management on Employee Retention in IT industry: Regressi...AkashSharma618775
Knowledge management (KM) is a tool that includes humans, processes and technology for managing
information and knowledge resources in an organization in order to keep in pace with the industrial
advancements. Knowledge management plays a key role in helping employees in performing their day to day
duties effectively. In addition to this it also has impact on certain lon term associations of employees with their
organization in terms of their survival and development there, which would have a major impact on Employee
Retention in the organizations. Thus studying the effect of Knowledge management on retention of employees in
organizations is very important in analyzing both the individual and organizational development, which would
have significant impact on the better development of the society.
There are still many prevalent problems surrounding the high school curriculum. This can be seen with
many teachers still struggling with students’ retention on subjects being taught, as well as students having
difficulty with test taking. A focal point with the matter is the subjects themselves that are taught, as both teachers
and students complain about how many of the school subjects do not object towards practical skill sets needed
towards real life. In several countries, students are taught subjects related to vocation, career, finances, and even
investment. A main reason as to why these countries suffer less from economic distress, as well as having more
successful outputs for students, is because financial education is well implemented into the high school curriculum.
The purpose for this paper is to show case studies of various countries showing success due to financial education
taught in schools, and to therefore prove the point that financial education is needed all around for the youth.
Towards A Global Civil Society: A Review of Pertaining Issues, Successes and ...AkashSharma618775
This article reviews the notion of civil society by raising pertinent issues, successes and drawbacks. Often
referred to as the space where we act for common good, civil society aims to connect poor or marginalized people
with groups that can mobilize support to help. We know that civil society by itself cannot achieve poverty
eradication. It must act in partnership with governments and institutions but it must be one of the partners and
not just a servant to carry out the designs of governments or corporations. Therefore there is need to expand the
role of NGOs and civil society organizations in three main specific areas related to poverty eradication: technical,
financial and political and enhancing the participation of those whose lives are affected by decisions and this can
only happen when there is an enabling environment designed to promote popular participation. The contributions
of civil society in global environmental preservation cannot be ignored since it is a cross cutting issue and both
national and international governments need other actors to make it a reality. In short, there has been increasing
support for civil society as understanding has grown about the important role that CSOs can play in bringing
about development goals. The Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Summit Outcome Document
emphasize the relationship between sustainable human development and democratic governance and the need for
civil society engagement to foster both.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
Deconstructing Global Movements of People: Implication for Collective Securit...AkashSharma618775
This review deconstructs a set of four aspects, namely immigration, global security and global borders. In
particular, we focus on issue one, the global immigration, in terms of its significance, challenges and implication.
Issue two, in terms of, motives for emigration, impact of emigration, challenges facing emigrants, and mitigation
measures to address the challenges. Issue three, global security, is addressed in terms of its importance as well as
global security challenges and strategy. Issue four, global borders, is addressed in terms of benefits of global
borders and shortcomings of global borders. The review suggests a linear connection among the three issues of
immigration, global security and global borders; these need to be analysed within the global context for global
peace and security to prevail and be consolidated. This analysis may be useful among scholars of international
relations and diplomacy as well as those engaged with international migration and refugee issues. The review
contributes to the bourgeoning understanding of international relations and diplomacy by underlining the
challenges and opportunities available to international immigrants as they intersperse with global borders that are
mapped by countless aspects of global security.
Effectiveness of drip irrigation in enhancing smart farming: a micro-study in...AkashSharma618775
This study aims to examine the effectiveness of drip irrigation in enhancing smart farming in the midnorth of Uganda. A descriptive review was adopted targeting one smart farm in the district. Data was gathered by
means of an interview guide and a farmers’ observation guide, and it was analysed using content analysis
correspondingly. The outcomes suggest that drip irrigation does not represent a large fraction of irrigation systems
in mid-north Uganda and the world in general; however, a number of new drip irrigation systems are being set-up
notwithstanding the very slow pace. Further revelation suggests that farmers can benefit from drip irrigation
through gaining knowledge and skills from visits and advises from the frequent visits; being a source of income
when the produce are sold; as well as providing food security for families, the adjacent community and the district
as a whole. Nonetheless, drip irrigation faces challenges of dearth of commitment by some members of the family,
untimely delivery of agro inputs, over cultivation of the land and very expensive inputs. It is obvious that drip
irrigation technologies are essential in enhancing smart farming in Oyam district, mid-north Uganda and the
country as a whole. The outcomes of the study can be useful as a source for scaling out drip irrigation in the region
and beyond especially when mounting a parameter on integration of drip irrigation on community development
agendas for small-holder farmers as targeted by the government’s agricultural cluster development programme.
This article contributes to the budding body of information on smart farming by emphasising obtainable
prospects, which can generate more pro-active small scale drip irrigation technologies.
APPRAISING FEMALE LABOUR IN THE INDIGENOUS ECONOMY OF MAMFE - SOUTHWEST CAMER...AkashSharma618775
African indigenous women have been instrumental in the growth and survival of local economies but
underrated in scholarly discourses. In this regard this paper reviews the role of female labour in Artistry,
agriculture, associations, investments, trade, education and skill jobs in the years 1922-1961, amidst patriarchal
background status and colonial incursion. The paper argues that female labour was the most contributing factor
to food production, household upkeep and the growth of the local economy of Mamfe during the period of British
rule in the Southern Cameroons. It debunks the untested opinions of many Cameroonians that attributed the
survival means of Mamfe women to solely prostitution- a perception that ignored the potentials of the women and
the vital role of female labour. The data needed to sustain this argument was collected from primary sources- oral
interviews with targeted eye witnesses, archival materials and theses and, secondary sources such as published
books, journals and the internet. The historical mode has been used, largely qualitative analysis presented in a
thematic and chronological manner. Findings reveal that during the years reviewed, Mamfe women were
suppressed and engulfed in a patriarchy cultural background. Yet, they were the backbones of households;
ensured food security and stirred the growth of the Mamfe economy. This, paper therefore draws the attention of
Governments, Non-Governmental and International Organizations on the need for gender-based policies that
could further enhance women’s participation in the development of rural economies in Africa including
Cameroon- a prerequisite to food security and poverty alleviation.
An Exploratory Study of Factors Influencing Corporate Sustainability on busin...AkashSharma618775
This study evaluates the effect of corporate sustainability on business performance of manufacturing
industries in USA, from 2012 to 2015. These Manufacturing industries are listed in Corporate Social
Responsibility Hub (CSRHub), Morning Star and Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). All data used in this report
were extracted from 37 manufacturing companies’ Sustainability, corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
annual reports. These companies are of diverse sectors such as Automobile, Health care, consumer goods, food,
beverages and technology. Quantitative method of research is used in this study; this also includes the use of
explanatory and descriptive research design. The main issues to be discussed in this study are Donation, Incident
rate reduction and Water Recycled as the independent variables, while Revenue is the dependent variable. Data
analysis was carried out using the regression analysis, descriptive statistics and correlation. E-views software
generated the data for further analysis. The findings imply that donation has a positive insignificance effect on
revenue, reduced incident rate reduction had positive significance effect on revenue and water recycling has
negative insignificant effect on revenue. In the future researches, larger samples of companies form diverse sectors
and subsectors should be studied to broaden the research on company performance especially the non-financial
aspect.
An empirical review on ethical business conduct among small and medium Malay ...AkashSharma618775
In the contemporary world of business, ethical conduct stood to be amongst very important practices that
businessmen are required to incorporate when conducting businesses. Yet, the challenges of globalization, trade
liberalization and profitability of businesses in the uncertain business environment are critically encourage
businessmen to engage in ethical conducts. To investigate this subject matter, the study employed Malay
businessmen at small and medium scale and analyse their participation in implementing ethical business conduct.
The study used four main dimensions of ethical business conducts namely personal values, managing social
responsibility, ways of conducting business and interaction with others in business setting. Moreover the study
categorized the target respondents on race basis thus the Bumiputera (Malaysians indegenious) composed of 50%
and non-Bumiputera thus Chinese and Indians at the rates in the distribution of 32% and 18% respectively.
Generally, businessmen at SMEs scale are aware of ethical business conduct and are implementing such matters;
yet, there are continuation of unethical conducts regardless of understanding of its importance to among the
businessmen in SMEs.
THE IMPACT OF TRADE LIBERALIZATION ON ECONOMIC GROWTH; THE CASE OF SUB-SAHARA...AkashSharma618775
The main aim of this research is to explore the effect of trade liberalization on economic growth in subSaharan Africa by analyzing certain macro-economic indicators using Ordinary Least Squares approach to
estimate regression equations. Many developing countries have substantially liberalized their trade regime over the
past three decades, either unilaterally or as part of multilateral initiatives. Nevertheless, trade barriers remain
high in many developing countries. One of the concerns that attributes to the reluctance of many of these countries
to liberalize their trade regime is the possible worsening of the trade balance.
This research paper is meant to give a recommendation on which macro-economic indicators sub-Saharan African
countries should pay particular attention to, implementing the necessary policies to ensure its effectiveness thereby
ensuring a step-up in those aspects of the economy in order to promote development. It considers 46 different
countries with different economic policies in sub-Saharan Africa for a 14-year period. Most papers considering
sub-Saharan African region consider a selected few countries based on certain economic reasons of their choice,
and those who consider most countries in the region have different macroeconomic indicators they employ for their
modeling. This paper considers if not all, almost all sub-Saharan African countries regardless of their economic
status.
In a May 9, 2024 paper, Juri Opitz from the University of Zurich, along with Shira Wein and Nathan Schneider form Georgetown University, discussed the importance of linguistic expertise in natural language processing (NLP) in an era dominated by large language models (LLMs).
The authors explained that while machine translation (MT) previously relied heavily on linguists, the landscape has shifted. “Linguistics is no longer front and center in the way we build NLP systems,” they said. With the emergence of LLMs, which can generate fluent text without the need for specialized modules to handle grammar or semantic coherence, the need for linguistic expertise in NLP is being questioned.
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‘वोटर्स विल मस्ट प्रीवेल’ (मतदाताओं को जीतना होगा) अभियान द्वारा जारी हेल्पलाइन नंबर, 4 जून को सुबह 7 बजे से दोपहर 12 बजे तक मतगणना प्रक्रिया में कहीं भी किसी भी तरह के उल्लंघन की रिपोर्ट करने के लिए खुला रहेगा।
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role of women and girls in various terror groupssadiakorobi2
Women have three distinct types of involvement: direct involvement in terrorist acts; enabling of others to commit such acts; and facilitating the disengagement of others from violent or extremist groups.
हम आग्रह करते हैं कि जो भी सत्ता में आए, वह संविधान का पालन करे, उसकी रक्षा करे और उसे बनाए रखे।" प्रस्ताव में कुल तीन प्रमुख हस्तक्षेप और उनके तंत्र भी प्रस्तुत किए गए। पहला हस्तक्षेप स्वतंत्र मीडिया को प्रोत्साहित करके, वास्तविकता पर आधारित काउंटर नैरेटिव का निर्माण करके और सत्तारूढ़ सरकार द्वारा नियोजित मनोवैज्ञानिक हेरफेर की रणनीति का मुकाबला करके लोगों द्वारा निर्धारित कथा को बनाए रखना और उस पर कार्यकरना था।
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Lexical Ambiguity and its types in Pashto Language
1. ISSN 2348-3156 (Print)
International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research ISSN 2348-3164 (online)
Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp: (275-283), Month: July - September 2021, Available at: www.researchpublish.com
Page | 275
Research Publish Journals
Lexical Ambiguity and its types in Pashto
Language
Mohammad Usman Solizay
Department of Pashto Literature
University of Bamyan, Afghanistan
Author email id: u.solizay@bu.edu.af/ usman.solizay@gmail.com
Abstract: Lexical and syntactic ambiguity is a natural phenomenon in languages of the world. Generally, languages
are having lexical and syntactic ambiguity based on their prose and verses. Beside human beings, lexical
Ambiguity and polysemy is a big problem for the machine and online translation. For answering this problem and
finding the exact meaning of the word and sentence. the translation should through the context in which the word
is used. This paper deliberates upon types of ambiguity in Pashto and later discusses the kinds of lexical and
grammatical ambiguity in the Pashto data. Pashto lexemes were taken from the phrases, sentences and verses of
the Pashto poetry. 300 ambiguous words and lexemes were analyzed and described through Pashto examples. The
research shows that there were lexical, syntactical, semantic and grammatical ambiguities in Pashto language, and
grammatical ambiguity was described in hierarchal way with in Pashto examples in prose and verses.
Keywords: Ambiguity, kinds of ambiguity, lexical ambiguity in Pashto context.
1. INTRODUCTION
Normally the term ambiguity has widespread meaning, but precisely in some specific places its content and meaning
become narrowed. In our daily life, we are using ambiguous words and sentences, which have two or more meanings
contextually. In reality, lexical and syntactical ambiguity means the doubtfulness of the meaning of a word or a sentence
in some specific context. The determination and meaning of the ambiguous words and sentences are realizable from the
dialogues of the speaker, but whenever these words were perceived, delivered and grasped separately then getting the
particular meaning of these words is too tough. Linguistically group of similar words and sentences which have different
meanings, but orthographically has same written form are known as lexical or grammatical ambiguity. The main problem
of the lexical, syntactical and grammatical ambiguity is that it faces the translator and translating machine with a complex
meaning of a word and sentence, while translating it from one language to another language. Machine translates words
and sentences based on the given data, but it can never specify and clarify the exact meaning of a word from its context.
The intentional and sudden ambiguous meaning of the word is not always recognized as a negative phenomenon. For
example, we are facing this problem in the language of the poetry, in which one word has one real and two or three other
meanings as well. Linguistically ambiguous words are those which have the same orthographical form, but dissimilar
pronunciation and unlike meanings. Or semantically those words which have two or more unrelated meanings are known
as ambiguous words. (Kooij,1971)
For the completion of this research paper I have collected and analyze around 300 ambiguous words and its various
meanings, from Pashto to Pashto dictionary, Pashto to Pashto descriptive dictionary, Pashto dialectal dictionary, Pashto
Aryana Encyclopedia, literary books and from the speeches and conversation of the people. Pashto is an eastern Iranian
(Aryan) language of the indo European languages family. It has many words like other languages, which are
orthographically the same, but their pronunciation, meanings and syllabifications are quite different from one another.
Lexical ambiguity and polysemy is an important topic in semantics. This important topic is described and analyzed in
other national and international languages of the world. In Pashto till now a specific paper, research or a book is not
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written, in which this topic is discussed as main subject. So this is the first work and basic research regarding the types of
lexical ambiguity and polysemy in Pashto language. Here I am going to discuss the types of lexical ambiguity and
polysemy in Pashto language, based on the analysis of the data.
2. SOURCES OF LEXICAL AMBIGUITY
Words and lexemes are semantically ambiguous which are orthographically the same, but their pronunciation and
meanings are different. Syntactically a sentence is ambiguous in which a specific word has two or more unrelated
meanings. It means that there are number of words and sentences in a language which has two or more meanings. An
ambiguous sentence may be consisting of words, that have phonologically the same or different structure, but its
grammatical differentiation is much clear. In reality the lexical ambiguity is the source for the grammatical ambiguity.
Sometimes a morphological structure of a word may become a cause of semantic changes in the word’s meaning. It
means the words which consist of different morphemes, may have different meanings within the same grammatical
structure. In Pashto language we have many words which are morphologically the same, but functionally and
grammatically are different from one another.
3. TYPES OF AMBIGUITIES
Commonly, there are many ambiguities in the dialogues of the speaker, while using words and sentences, but
linguistically these lexical and syntactic ambiguities are not the same at all times and conditions. Grammatically
ambiguity is a structural principle, which is represented in the form of words and sentences. It means structurally and
grammatically a sentence consists of different group of words. Maybe a sentence consists of subject and predicate. A
sentence may consist of subject, predicate and an adjective. Other sentences may add various adverbial words in its
structure too. The internal constituents of a sentence maybe the main reason fort a sentence to be realized in two or more
ways. So therefore we are going to discuss the types of lexical ambiguities here.
[1] structural ambiguity:
A sentence is structurally ambiguous when it has two different meanings, or a sentence that gives and represents two
meanings is known as structurally ambiguous sentence. As in the following example.
[ zoy mo daraɣəlay day «
زوی
مو
درغلی
.دی
» ] (Sherzad,2017)
[“your son came there” or “our son come there.”]
In the above sentence, the word “”هو (yours/ours) is the only word that makes the sentence ambiguous, because in Pashto
language as the subject of the sentence it can be used for first plural and second plural persons and it means (yours/ours).
In the above sentence it’s not clear that the son belongs to first plural person (our) or second plural person (your). So
therefore the above sentence is structurally ambiguous. Or in the following example.
[də Syal ketɑb «
کتاب سیال د
» ] (Sherzad, 2020)
In Pashto language Structurally the above phrase also has two different meanings:
- The author of the book is Syal.
- The author of the book is someone else, but its owner is Syal.
Therefore, the above phrase is structurally ambiguous and gives two different meanings in Pashto language.
[2] Systematic ambiguity:
Is a kind of structural ambiguity in which a grammatical unit (noun, adjective, adverb…) has two different meanings in
Pashto language. For example: [də gwəlɑno ʦalorlɑray «
څلورالری ګالنو د
» ] (Sherzad, 2020).
If we analyze the above noun phrase, it represents two different meanings:
- This intersection is specified for selling the flowers.
- In the structure of this intersection flowers were used.
Therefore, the above phrase is structurally ambiguous in Pashto and gives two different meanings. Or look at this
example. [də xəʂto wɑlɑ kor «
کور واال خښتو د
» ] (Chamtu, 2018)
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The above positional phrase also represents systematic structural ambiguity, which has two different meanings:
- The owner of this house is brick dealer or seller.
- In the structure of this house bricks were used.
Therefore, the above positional phrase is known as structurally ambiguous phrase in Pashto language, because it
represents two different meanings.
[3] Unsystematic ambiguity:
A phrase or sentence which represents few other meanings, besides a precise meaning is known as unsystematic
ambiguity. Once again if we repeat our previous example here, we can describe it as follows:
[də gwəlɑno ʦalorlɑray «
څلورالری ګالنو د
» ] (Chamtu, 2018)
The above nominal phrase represents the following meanings in Pashto language:
- the intersection where flowers are selling.
- the intersection in the structure of which natural or plastic flowers were used.
- the intersection where lovers share flowers on the exact day.
- the intersection where the municipality grows a number of flowers.
The semantic description of the above words shows that these words have grammatical relationship among them, so this
type of correlation is known as unsystematic ambiguity. (kooij,1971)
Other common types of lexical ambiguity in Pashto language are as follows:
[4] Lexical Ambiguity in Pashto:
Structurally, vowels and consonants are also significant factors in the formation of lexical ambiguity. In Pashto language,
there are many words that are orthographically the same, but their articulation, syllabification and meanings are altered.
These words are orthographically alike, but the replacement of the internal vowel causes alterations in the meaning of the
words. For example: the word [“]”نور in Pashto could be pronounced in three different ways while having and
representing three different meanings as the following.
[nur “]”نور = [light, risen, whiteness]
[nor“=]”نور [more, others]
[nwar”=]”نور [sun] (Mashwany, 2012)
The above words are orthographically the same, but the internal phonological changes cause variation in the meaning of
these words. So the vowel changes in the structure of these are the main cause of meaning. Therefore, the above words are
semantically ambiguous. Look at the example below as well: The word [“]”سور in Pashto language can be pronounced in
two different ways while having four different meanings that we can discuss it as follow. [sur “]”سور = [red, warm, color]
[sor “]”سور = [width, mounted] (Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
[5] Grammatical Ambiguity in Pashto:
The term grammar here means the morphological and syntactic structures and its usage in Pashto language. In
morphological structures, sometimes a basic morpheme causes ambiguity and variation in the meaning of a word. When a
morpheme causes semantic ambiguity in the different eras of the word, this kind of process is known as morphological or
grammatical ambiguity in Pashto. In Pashto language grammatical ambiguity has many types, here we will discuss it one
by one within the examples and its usage.
[5.1] Nominal Ambiguity:
A speech process or in the dialogue, whenever a noun represents two or more meanings, in Pashto grammar this process is
known as nominal ambiguity. Or if a noun representing two or more than two meanings in different situations and cases,
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so this kind of ambiguity is known as the nominal ambiguity in Pashto. As in the following examples. The word [tor
“]”تور is grammatically a proper noun, which represents the following meanings in Pashto:
- Singular masculine proper noun as in [Tor raɣay “ تور
راغی ”]
- Prosecution [pə Ali bɑnde də ɣla tor day. “ غال د بانذې علي پو
تور
.دی ”]
- Black color [zə tor qalam larəm “ زه
تور
.لرم قلن ”]
- Net [Jamal pə lobɣali ke tor ʣɑy pər ʣɑy kəɽ. “ کړ پرځای ځای تور کې لوبغالي پو جوال
. ”]
(Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
We can describe the above examples as follows: In the first sentence, the word (Tor – تو
ر ) is used as Singular masculine
proper noun, in the second example the same word (Tor – تو
ر ) is used by the meaning of Prosecution, the third sentence
describes that the word (Tor – تو
ر ) is used to modify the meanings of the black color and lastly the word (Tor – تو
ر ) is
used for the net which is fixed in the playground. One thing to be mentioned here is that the word “tor – ”تور in all the
above cases within the same orthography, pronunciation and syllabification represents four different and unrelated
meanings, therefore we can say that the word “tor – ”تور is grammatically ambiguous in Pashto.
[5.2] Adjectival lexical ambiguity:
In the spoken or written language and communication, if an adjective is used to represent two or more different meanings,
this kinds of ambiguity is known as adjectival ambiguity in Pashto language. As in the following example. [tura, tora
“]”توره grammatically this is an adjective, which can be pronounced in two different ways and represent three various
meanings. If the above word is pronounced and used as [ tora “]”توره then it is grammatically an adjective and the singular
feminine form of the word [tor “]”تور and It means [black]. Sometimes it’s used as singular masculine proper noun as
well, as in [Tora cherta ze “ توره
ځې چېرتو ”] it means [ where are you going Tor]. If it is pronounced and used as [tura
“]”توره then grammatically it comes under the nominal category, it means [sword, bravery, courage]. As in the following
examples: [tora xwaləy “خولۍ ]”توره “black hat” In this phrase [tora “]”توره is an adjective, which modifies the
hat.[Tora/tora kortəy de ʧerta da “ده؟ چېرتو دې کورتۍ ]”توره = [TORA (proper masculine noun in accusative case) where is
your blak koat.]/[where is your (second person singular) black coat.] (Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
In the above sentence [Tora “]”توره represents two different meanings as second person proper masculine noun, which ask
(TOR) that where is your coat? and as an adjective, which asks the third person about his black coat. Therefore, this
sentence is grammatically ambiguous, because of the word (Tora “)”توره that represents different meanings within the
same formation. Or look at the following examples.[tura mata ʃwa “.شوه هاتو ]”توره “sword is broken”
[Tor Khan tura wəkɽa “.وکړه توره خاى ]”تور “Tor Khan represent his bravery.”
[Wadan Xpala tura sarganda kɽa “.کړه څرګنذه توره خپلو ]”وداى “Wadan Showed his sword.” / “Wadan Showed his Courage.”
(Chamtu, 2018)
In the above examples, the word [tura “]”توره is an ambiguous word, because in different context and same orthographical
form and alike pronunciation; it represents various meanings.
[5.3] Pronoun as lexical ambiguity:
In the spoken or in the written language, if orthographically the same pronoun is pronounced inversely with different
meanings, this kind of usage of pronoun is called pronoun lexical ambiguity in Pashto language. For more description,
look at the following usage and example. [haɣa/haɣə “]”ىغو “He/She simple present and simple future tense”/ “only He
past tense” (Mashwany, 2012)
Its usage and contrast can be clarified in the following examples.
[haɣa kor ta raɣay. “ هغه
.راغی کورتو ”] “He came to house.”
[haɣa kor ta raɣla. “ هغه
.راغلو کورتو ”] “She Came to house.”
[haɣa ba kor ta raʃi. “ هغه
.راشي تو کور بو ”] “He/She will come to house.” (Sherzad, 2017)
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In the above sentences, the word (haɣa “)”ىغو is grammatically pronoun, which is orthographically the same and its
pronunciation is also alike, but syntactically the tenses in which this word is used are different. In the first two sentences,
the word (haɣa “)”ىغو represents both genders (He/She) in the present tense. In the third sentence the word (haɣa “)”ىغو is
used for both masculine and feminine genders and the action will take place in the future. In the above sentences the
pronoun (haɣa “)”ىغو is pronounced, written and orthographically the same, but the tense in which they are used
differentiate its meaning and usage. So this type of ambiguity is called pronoun as lexical ambiguity.
[5.4] Adverbial Ambiguity:
Adverbial ambiguity is also a kind of semantic ambiguity, in which an adverb is formally and orthographically having the
same form, its pronunciation and meaning is unlike and different. Sometimes an adverb represents two or more meanings,
while using it in a phrase, clause or sentence. Look at the following example. [təl/tal “]”تل “always, deep” (Tashrehi
qamoos, 2005)
Grammatically, the above word has two functions in Pashto language, if it’s used as an adverb of time (təl “)”تل it means
“always” and secondly if it’s used as an adverb of place [tal “]”تل it means “deep”. Orthographically its written alike, but
the pronunciation and meaning is different from one another, so this type of ambiguity is known as adverbial ambiguity.
Look at the example. [haɣa təl pə ʂuwənʣi ke hazər wi “ ىغو
تل
.وي حاضر کې ښوونځي پو ”] “He is always present in the
school.”
[kabɑn də ubo pə tal ke ʒwand kawi. “ پو اوبو د کباى
تل
.کوي ژونذ کې ”] “Fish are living in the depth of the water.”
(Sherzad, 2017)
In the first sentence mentioned above, the word (təl “)”تل means “always, anytime”, in the second sentence the word (tal
“)”تل means “deep”. Orthographically the word is written the same, but it’s pronunciation and meaning is different.
Another meaning of this word in the same form and pronunciation is “spreading” This type of ambiguity is known as
adverbial ambiguity in Pashto language.Look at another example.
[kəla “]”کلو = grammatically adverb, it means “when”
[kala “]”کلو = grammatically noun, it means “head, bald” (Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
When = [kəla raʣe “راځې؟ ]”کلو “when are you coming?”
Bald = [kala raʣe “راځې؟ ]”کلو “are you coming Bald?”
Head = [kala de kɑr na kawi “.وي نو کار دې ]”کلو “your head is not working.” (Chamtu, 2018)
The above word (kəla/kala “)”کلو is lexically ambiguous in Pashto, grammatically it’s adverb of time, noun and an
adjective. Literally it is written alike, but pronounced differently, while having different meanings, therefore it is known
as adverbial ambiguity in Pashto language.
[5.5] Verbal ambiguity:
Verbal ambiguity is a kind of semantic ambiguity, in which grammatically a verb has different meanings, within the same
written form and unlike pronunciation. As in the following examples.
[tləma - ]تلوو “Going” [za kor ta tləma – تو کور
تلمه ] “I was going home”
[taləma “]”تلوو “Weighting” (Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
[zə mewa taləma – هېوه زه
تلمه ] “I am weighting fruits” (Khweshky, 2018)
the above word ()تلوو is grammatically ambiguous in Pashto, because orthographically it’s the same, but it’s pronunciation
and meaning is different. The first word (tləma – )تلوو in Pashto grammar means the first singular person was going home
in the past. The second word (taləma - )تلوو in Pashto grammar means that the first singular person in the present time
weighing fruits. Orthographically, both words are alike and grammatically verbs, but its syllabification, pronunciation and
meaning is different from each other. This kind of lexical ambiguity is known as verbal ambiguity. Look at the example.
[artawəl - ]ارتول “enlarge, expand, throw, away”
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(Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
[pə laro ke də ganduno artawəl ʂə kɑr nə day. – ګنذونو د کې الرو پو
ارتول
.دی نو کار ښو ]
“throwing thrashes on the way is bad.”
[ لوېذو لو توتانو د تو ځوکې بو ارتول ځولۍ تنګې د
.وکړي هخنیوی “də tange ʣoləy artawəl ba ʣməke ta də tutɑno lə lwedo məxniway
wəkɽi.”] “Expanding of the plea will prevent the berry throwing into the land.” In Pashto grammar, this word (artawəl -
)ارتول is verb, which has two different meanings and orthographically has only one form and only one pronunciation, but
lexically it is ambiguous, because it represents two unrelated meanings. As in the above mentioned examples, in the first
sentence, the word (artawəl -ارتول ) means “throwing, swaying”, but in the second sentence, the same word (artawəl -
)ارتول means “enlarging, expanding”. So this type of verb, which has the same written form, but different meanings is
known as verbal ambiguity.
[5.6] Morphological ambiguity:
A word may consist of two or more free and bound morphemes. In Pashto grammar, there are various morphemes that are
orthographically the same, but grammatically they represent different meanings. In linguistics, this type of morpheme,
which has the same written form, but different pronunciation and unlike meaning is known as morphological meaning. As
in the following examples. [xwra – خوره ] “you eat”
[xwara – ]خوره “spread, scattered, dispersed”
[xura - ]خوره “wound”
[ɖoɖəy xwra – ډوډۍ
خوره ] “you eat the bread”
[də korona nɑroɣi pər ʈol hewɑd xwara ʃwa – ىېواد ټول پر ناروغي کورونا د
خوره
.شوه ]
[Corona Virus scattered the whole country.] (Mashwany, 2012)
In the above mentioned two examples, there is a morphological ambiguity in the structure of the word (xwra/xwara/xura -
)خوره, because the word is orthographically the same, but having different pronunciation and representing two unlike
meanings. If the word is structurally used as (xwra - )خوره, then it means “you eat”. Here the morpheme /a/ shows the
second singular person. If it is used as (xwara - )خوره then it means “scattered, spread”, here the morpheme /-ara/is the
part of a word, which is used for the work done by unknown person. The above morphological structure
(xwra/xwara/xura– )خوره of Pashto language is lexically ambiguous, because it has the same written form, but different
pronunciation and different meanings. Or look at the following examples.
[zɽə - ]زړه “heart”
[zaɽa – ]زړه “old woman”
[zɽə me zaɽa na qablawi – قبلوي نو زړه هې ]زړه “my heart is not accepting the old woman.”
(Tashrehi qamoos, 2005)
The above word (zɽə/zaɽa – )زړه is morphologically ambiguous in Pashto grammar, because orthographically it’s the
same, but its pronunciation, syllabification and meaning is different from one another. The word (zɽə) is monosyllabic, but
(zaɽa) is a disyllabic word, both of them consist of two different morphemes. Here, the only case is morphological
structure that changes the meaning of the word, so this type of ambiguity is known as morphological ambiguity.
[5.7] Syntactic Ambiguity
Commonly in linguistics, but particular in Pashto grammar there are commonly two types of ambiguities, one of them is
known as lexical ambiguity and the second one is known as syntactic ambiguity. We have discussed the lexical ambiguity
above, here we are going to describe the syntactic ambiguity in Pashto language. If the structure of a sentence gives two
different meanings, because of its lexical formation and word order, this type of ambiguity is known as syntactic
ambiguity in Pashto language. In the structure of a sentence, if a word causes the reader and hearer take two or more
different meanings from that sentence, this type of ambiguity is known as syntactic ambiguity. As in the following Pashto
couplet.
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خېژي هې درپسې دم یو دروهو هو ها لو دم[dərpəse me xeʒi dam lə ma mə druma yaw dam]
پو ستا کېږم ژونذی یې عیسی هې تو هرده زه دم[zə morda tə me ɂsɑ ye ʒwanday keʐəm stɑ pə dam]
(Hamkar, 2009)
In the above Pashto couplet, the word (dam - )دم has been repeated three times, orthographically the same, it’s
pronunciation is alike, but the lexical meanings are different. In the first line or ode, the first (dam - )دم means “breath”, in
the same line, the second (dam - )دم means “time, period”. In the second line or ode the word (dam – )دم means “spirit,
blow”. The repetition of the word (dam – )دم in the above couplet causes, the ambiguity of this verse. Every reader or
hearer may describe, translate and analyze it differently. So this type of lexical ambiguity that causes a sentence to
represent two or more meanings is called syntactic ambiguity. Let’s describe another example from Pashto folklore
literature. [xalak ʤɑm na ubə axli – جام خلک
نه
.اخلي اوبو ] “people get water from the goblet.”
[xalak ʤɑm nə ubə axli – جام خلک
نه
.اخلي اوبو ] “people only get water, they don’t need the goblet.”
(Yad, 2020)
In the above sentence (na/nə - )نو is the only word that cause the ambiguity of this sentence. If we read or hear the
sentence as [xalak ʤɑm nə ubə axli – جام خلک
نه
.اخلي اوبو ], it means that “people only get water, they don’t need the
goblet.” Here a short pause after the word “nə- نو “causes the sentence to represent an exact meaning. If we read or hear
the sentence as [xalak ʤɑm na ubə axli – جام خلک
نه
.اخلي اوبو ], it means that “people get water from the goblet.” Here no
pauses and continuation after the word “na- “نو causes the sentence to represent another type of meaning. From the above
discussion, we can say that, orthographically both forms of the sentence are the same, but the pronunciation and meaning
of the word (na/nə - )نو causes the sentence to represent two different and unrelated meanings in Pashto. So this type of
ambiguity is known as syntactic ambiguity. Or look at this sentence from Pashto prose context. [Heela koʧnəy da, xo kɑr
ye loy day. کار خو ،ده کوچنۍ ىیلو
.دی لوی یې ]
“Heela is the only small baby, who compiles biggest works.”
[heela koʧnəy da, xo kɑr ye loy day. .دی لوی یې کار خو ،ده کوچنۍ ]ىیلو
“small wishes causes achieving biggest goals.” (Yad, 2020)
In the above sentence the word (Heela– )ىیلو is the only cause of the sentence to represent two or more meanings. In
Pashto grammar, the word (Heela–)ىیلو is used to represents two different meanings. It means if the word (Heela–)ىیلو is
used as a proper, singular feminine noun, then we can describe and translate the above sentence as “Heela is the only
small baby, who compiles biggest works.” If the word (Heela–)ىیلو is used by the meaning of “wish, hope”, then the above
sentence can be translated and described as “small wishes causes achieving biggest goals.” If we compare the first and
second meanings of the above sentence, there is a quite difference in the meaning. Orthographically both sentences have
the same form, same pronunciation, but different meanings. Semantically, this type of ambiguity is known as syntactic
ambiguity.
4. CONCLUSION
In the usage of human languages, lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguity is a natural phenomenon. Linguistic
ambiguity means semantic complexity and ambiguity of a lexeme and sentence. The purpose and meaning of lexical and
syntactic ambiguity is infinite area, but in some specific extents its meaning and purpose become narrow. The meaning
and purpose of the ambiguous lexemes and sentences is known from the speeches of the speaker and its usage, but when
they are in the written form, the reader and the hearer do not know its meaning until their usage in context. In Pashto
language, words that have the same written form and their pronunciation is alike, they are known as ambiguous words. On
the other hand, those words and sentences, which are orthographically the same are known as ambiguous words and
sentences. Linguistically, words that have the same written form, alike pronunciation, but different meanings are known
as ambiguous words. Like the world’s other languages, Pashto also has structurally ambiguous words in the form of prose
and verses. Structurally, an ambiguous sentence may have the same phonological structure, but grammatically they are
different. Indeed, this grammatical contrast is because of the lexical ambiguity. Grammatically, semantic ambiguity is a
structural principle, that is represented in the form of words and sentences. A sentence maybe made of subject and
predicate. On the other hand, a sentence may have subject, verb and an adjective in its structure. May be a sentence has
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noun, adjective, verb and various types of adverbs in its structure. The structural constituents of a sentence maybe the
main cause of the lexical or syntactic ambiguity. The findings of this research show that Pashto language has these
various types of ambiguity in its grammatical structure:
- Structural Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the structure of a word, phrase, clause or a sentence represent
two or more meanings. This type of ambiguity is also known as systematic ambiguity.
- Phonological Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in the structure of a word when a phoneme causes to represent two or
more meanings.
- Morphological Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in the structure of a word when a morpheme causes to represent
two or more meanings.
- Grammatical and Semantical Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the grammatical structure of a language
faces the reader or hearer to take two or more different meanings from only one grammatical item. Then grammatical
ambiguity is divided into various types in Pashto language:
- Nominal Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one grammatical name.
- Adjectival Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one adjective.
- Pronoun as Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one pronoun.
- Adverbial Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one adverb.
- Verbal Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one verb.
- Syntactic Ambiguity, is a kind of ambiguity in which the listener or the hearer gets two or more different meanings
from only one structure of a sentence.
The above mentioned various types of ambiguities are faced by the reader and the listener and as well as the translation
machine to get two or more meanings, from only one grammatical item in Pashto language. The research shows that in
Pashto grammar we have numerous words, that have the same orthographical form, same pronunciation, same syllable
structure, but represent different meanings. Sometimes beside their meanings, the pronunciation and syllabification the
same word is also altered. It’s not only a problem in Pashto language, in which the natural orthography and grammatical
constituents represent two or more various meanings, but world’s famous and international languages also have the above
types of ambiguities in their orthography and grammatical constituents, which faces the reader and listener to get two or
more meanings from only one grammatical item.
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International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research ISSN 2348-3164 (online)
Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp: (275-283), Month: July - September 2021, Available at: www.researchpublish.com
Page | 283
Research Publish Journals
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