This document discusses tuning methods for averaging level controllers. It begins by explaining the proportional-integral (PI) algorithm is well-suited for level control. It then provides a method to tune the PI controller by:
1) Setting the proportional gain based on the largest expected flow disturbance and alarm limits
2) Setting the integral reset time based on the vessel's surge volume and disturbance residence time
3) Testing for oscillations and adjusting the reset time or gain if needed
It also covers nonlinear control, level measurement corrections, and direct level to valve control tuning. The overall conclusions are that the PI controller is excellent for level control and the proposed tuning method makes good use of a vessel's surge capacity.
POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING 5-LEVEL FLYING CAPACITOR MULTILEVEL CONVERTER...ijiert bestjournal
This paper present the use of five level flying cap acitor multilevel converters based dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) on power distributio n system to decrease the power- quality disturbances in distribution system,such a s voltage imbalances,harmonic voltages,and voltage sags. This DVR based five mul tilevel topology is suitable for medium-voltage applications and operated by the con trol scheme based on the so called repetitive control. The organization of this paper has been divided into three parts;the first one eliminates the modulation high-frequency harmonics using filter increase the transient response. The second one deal with the lo ad voltage;and the third is flying capacitors charged with balanced voltages . The MATLAB Simulation results are presented to illustrate and understand the performa nces of DVR in supporting load voltage.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document discusses cascade, ratio, and feedforward control techniques. Cascade control reduces the effect of specific disturbances by using a faster slave loop. Ratio control reduces the effect of feed flow rate changes. Feedforward control compensates for measured disturbances before they affect the process. The document provides examples of how each control technique can be applied and their advantages and limitations.
Cascade control uses two or more interconnected control loops to control a process variable. In a basic cascade control scheme, the output of the primary controller determines the set point of the secondary controller. The secondary controller then adjusts the control variable. This allows the secondary controller to respond quickly to disturbances while the primary controller responds more slowly.
An example is given of using cascade control to maintain the temperature of a fluid heated by steam. A secondary flow controller loop would respond quickly to changes in steam flow, while the primary temperature controller loop would adjust more slowly to variations in fluid temperature. Cascade control in this case allows compensation for disturbances in both steam and fluid flow rates to better maintain the desired fluid temperature.
This document discusses time domain and frequency domain analysis for measurement systems. Time domain analysis examines how a signal changes over time, allowing the system's transient response to be modeled through equations. Frequency domain analysis represents a signal as a combination of sinusoids, allowing characteristics like bandwidth and stability to be examined from the system's transfer function. Key specifications for both domains are defined, such as rise time, settling time, and bandwidth. Frequency response plots like Bode and Nyquist diagrams provide a graphical way to analyze stability. An example of measuring solar panel output is given to demonstrate these analytical techniques.
This document describes the transmission of air through air conditioning ducts. It discusses airflow fundamentals and equations like Bernoulli's equation. It explains how to estimate pressure losses in ducts due to friction and changes in momentum from fittings. Pressure losses are estimated using charts, tables and equations for different duct shapes (circular, rectangular) and fittings (elbows, branches, etc.). The goal is to understand and calculate duct system pressures and fan power requirements.
This document discusses cascade control systems. It defines cascade control as using two closed loop controllers where the output of the first controller is the set point of the second. The first loop is called the master controller and the second the slave controller. Cascade control provides more precise control of processes with multiple stages. It allows compensation for load changes and helps maintain desired values. The document outlines applications in steam power plants including drum level control and steam temperature control. It notes both advantages like improved dynamics but also drawbacks like increased complexity and cost.
This document provides information about cascade control systems and ratio control systems. It begins with an introduction to cascade control systems, which use multiple measurement signals and control loops to control one primary variable. An example is described of using cascade control to maintain the temperature of a fluid being heated in an exchanger by controlling both the fluid flow and steam flow. The document then discusses ratio control systems, which are used to maintain a set ratio between two process stream flow rates, with one flow rate dependent on the other.
POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING 5-LEVEL FLYING CAPACITOR MULTILEVEL CONVERTER...ijiert bestjournal
This paper present the use of five level flying cap acitor multilevel converters based dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) on power distributio n system to decrease the power- quality disturbances in distribution system,such a s voltage imbalances,harmonic voltages,and voltage sags. This DVR based five mul tilevel topology is suitable for medium-voltage applications and operated by the con trol scheme based on the so called repetitive control. The organization of this paper has been divided into three parts;the first one eliminates the modulation high-frequency harmonics using filter increase the transient response. The second one deal with the lo ad voltage;and the third is flying capacitors charged with balanced voltages . The MATLAB Simulation results are presented to illustrate and understand the performa nces of DVR in supporting load voltage.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document discusses cascade, ratio, and feedforward control techniques. Cascade control reduces the effect of specific disturbances by using a faster slave loop. Ratio control reduces the effect of feed flow rate changes. Feedforward control compensates for measured disturbances before they affect the process. The document provides examples of how each control technique can be applied and their advantages and limitations.
Cascade control uses two or more interconnected control loops to control a process variable. In a basic cascade control scheme, the output of the primary controller determines the set point of the secondary controller. The secondary controller then adjusts the control variable. This allows the secondary controller to respond quickly to disturbances while the primary controller responds more slowly.
An example is given of using cascade control to maintain the temperature of a fluid heated by steam. A secondary flow controller loop would respond quickly to changes in steam flow, while the primary temperature controller loop would adjust more slowly to variations in fluid temperature. Cascade control in this case allows compensation for disturbances in both steam and fluid flow rates to better maintain the desired fluid temperature.
This document discusses time domain and frequency domain analysis for measurement systems. Time domain analysis examines how a signal changes over time, allowing the system's transient response to be modeled through equations. Frequency domain analysis represents a signal as a combination of sinusoids, allowing characteristics like bandwidth and stability to be examined from the system's transfer function. Key specifications for both domains are defined, such as rise time, settling time, and bandwidth. Frequency response plots like Bode and Nyquist diagrams provide a graphical way to analyze stability. An example of measuring solar panel output is given to demonstrate these analytical techniques.
This document describes the transmission of air through air conditioning ducts. It discusses airflow fundamentals and equations like Bernoulli's equation. It explains how to estimate pressure losses in ducts due to friction and changes in momentum from fittings. Pressure losses are estimated using charts, tables and equations for different duct shapes (circular, rectangular) and fittings (elbows, branches, etc.). The goal is to understand and calculate duct system pressures and fan power requirements.
This document discusses cascade control systems. It defines cascade control as using two closed loop controllers where the output of the first controller is the set point of the second. The first loop is called the master controller and the second the slave controller. Cascade control provides more precise control of processes with multiple stages. It allows compensation for load changes and helps maintain desired values. The document outlines applications in steam power plants including drum level control and steam temperature control. It notes both advantages like improved dynamics but also drawbacks like increased complexity and cost.
This document provides information about cascade control systems and ratio control systems. It begins with an introduction to cascade control systems, which use multiple measurement signals and control loops to control one primary variable. An example is described of using cascade control to maintain the temperature of a fluid being heated in an exchanger by controlling both the fluid flow and steam flow. The document then discusses ratio control systems, which are used to maintain a set ratio between two process stream flow rates, with one flow rate dependent on the other.
Sensor Fusion Study - Ch10. Additional topics in kalman filter [Stella Seoyeo...AI Robotics KR
This document discusses additional topics related to Kalman filtering, including verifying filter performance, multiple model estimation, reduced-order filtering, robust filtering, and handling delayed measurements. Specific topics covered include using innovations statistics to verify filters, running multiple filters in parallel with different models, reducing filter order to lower computational costs, making filters more robust to model uncertainties, and modifying filters to incorporate out-of-sequence measurements.
1) The document describes a fuzzy-PID cascade controller used to control the level of liquid in a horizontal tank.
2) The cascade controller uses a PID controller as the inner loop to regulate flow rate and a fuzzy logic controller as the outer loop to control the liquid level.
3) Experimental results show that the cascade controller has a faster response time, lower steady state error, and is less affected by disturbances than a simple controller.
The document discusses the extended Kalman filter (EKF), which extends the standard Kalman filter to nonlinear systems through linearization. The EKF linearizes the system equations at each time step by taking the derivative of the nonlinear functions around the current state estimate. This results in an approximate linear system that can then be processed using the standard Kalman filter equations. The key steps of the EKF algorithm are to 1) compute the linearized system matrices using derivatives, 2) use these in a first-order Taylor approximation to linearize the system equations, and 3) apply the standard Kalman filter equations to this approximate linear system to recursively estimate the state.
This document discusses cascade control in a power plant boiler. Cascade control uses two controllers, a master and slave, to more precisely control a process. In a boiler, drum level is controlled using cascade control with drum level as the master controller and feedwater flow as the slave controller. This provides improved control over drum level as steam load changes are compensated for through remote manipulation of the feedwater flow setpoint. Benefits of cascade control include reduced lag time and improved dynamic response, while drawbacks include increased complexity, cost, and controller tuning difficulty.
The document discusses Rudolf Kalman and his development of the Kalman filter, a mathematical method widely used in fields such as electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and communications. It provides background on Kalman, an overview of the Kalman filter and how it works, and examples of its applications, notably in enabling the Apollo 11 moon landing through its use in the spacecraft's guidance system. The Kalman filter provides an efficient recursive solution to problems of discrete-time data filtering and estimation in dynamic systems with random noise.
The document discusses aircraft pitch control system modeling and controller design. It describes the pitch angle and angle of attack, principles of flight, and requirements for the pitch control system. It then models the aircraft pitch transfer function and analyzes the open-loop and closed-loop response. PID, root locus and state-space controllers are designed in MATLAB and Simulink to control the aircraft pitch and meet the requirements.
This document summarizes the key aspects of Kalman filtering based on a report submitted to Dr. Muhammad Zia. It introduces Kalman filtering and its recursive two-step process to produce optimal estimates. It then discusses dynamical signal models including Gauss Markov processes. The main types of Kalman filters are described - scalar state scalar, scalar state vector, vector state vector, and extended Kalman filter. Simulation results are shown for scalar, vector, and extended Kalman filters applied to particle tracking. Matlab code for implementing the different Kalman filters is included in the appendix.
This document discusses various types of motor control, including on-off control and PID control. It begins with an overview of closed-loop control using motor feedback via encoders for velocity and position control. The main focus is on introducing PID control in a step-wise manner, first explaining on-off control and then proportional, integral and derivative controllers. It provides the mathematical formulas for these controller types and discusses implementing them in software and tuning the PID parameters.
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) The open loop transfer function is given as:
G(s) = Kp/(Ts+1)
Where T = 1 sec, Kp = 1
2) To reduce overshoot, we need to add a derivative term (lead compensation)
3) A lead compensator is of the form:
Gc(s) = (s+z)/(s+p)
Where z < p
4) Try z = 2, p = 10
5) The closed loop transfer function is:
Gcl(s) = KpGc(s)/(Ts+1+KpGc(s))
= (s+2
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) The open-loop transfer function is given as:
G(s) = Kv/s
2) To reduce overshoot, we need to add a compensator to increase the damping. A lag compensator is suitable here.
3) A lag compensator has the transfer function:
Gc(s) = (s+z)/(s+p)
4) To reduce overshoot to less than 20%, we choose z=0.1 and p=0.05
5) The closed-loop transfer function is:
T(s) = Kv(s+0.1)/(s(s+0.05))
The fundamental concepts of servo motion control have remained largely unchanged over the last 50 years. Servo systems aim to improve transient response times, reduce steady state errors, and reduce sensitivity to load parameters compared to open loop systems. There are two main classes of servo control problems - command tracking to minimize errors between commanded and actual motion, and disturbance rejection to combat unknown disturbances. Common servo control approaches like PID and PIV combine feedforward command tracking with feedback disturbance rejection. Tuning methods like Ziegler-Nichols analysis and specifying bandwidth and damping ratio help optimize PID and PIV controllers for different motion tasks like step responses or trapezoidal velocity profiles.
This document presents a comparative study of monotonic and non-monotonic phase linear time-invariant (LTI) systems using an improved analytical PID controller design. It discusses using gain crossover frequency and phase margin specifications to design controllers that ensure minimum phase margin inside the desired bandwidth. For the comparative study, it uses bode stability criterion, Nyquist stability criterion, and unit step response. It presents a case study comparing the design of controllers for a buck converter system, which exhibits a non-monotonic phase response, using both monotonic and non-monotonic design techniques. The results show that treating the non-monotonic system as monotonic leads to an overvalued proportional gain and undervalued derivative gain in the PID controller.
The document describes modeling and control of aircraft pitch dynamics. It presents the longitudinal equations of motion, transfer function and state-space models. PID and root locus controllers are designed in MATLAB to meet requirements like overshoot <10% and settling time <10 seconds. A Simulink model is built containing the physical setup, state-space model and open/closed loop responses. PID control achieves the design goals while root locus analysis places poles for natural frequency >0.9 rad/sec and zero steady-state error.
In layperson's terms: this, is droop control - 2015-06-12.r03.4Abel Rochwarger
This document provides a layperson's explanation of droop control in gas turbine generators. It defines key concepts like speed control, temperature control, base load, and droop setting. Droop control means the generator responds to grid frequency variations by changing its power output along lines of constant speed reference. This helps maintain grid frequency within acceptable limits. The document contrasts droop control with preselected load control, noting that preselected load control can sometimes cause generators to respond in a way that is counterproductive to grid needs when load references are at their limits.
Voltage Regulation of Boost Converter using Observer based Sliding Mode Contr...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This study dealt with output voltage regulation of boost converter using observer based sliding mode controller comprises of adaptive PI sliding surface. Observer was designed to estimate the inductor current value, such that no sensor was required as a feedback. Adaptive PI sliding surface was constructed from the difference between estimated inductor current and its reference value. The stability of proposed method was ensured by using Lyapunov direct method. To test the system performance, numerical simulation was conducted. The result indicated that the integral absolute error value of proposed method was 0.19, which was 7 times less than sliding mode with PI sliding surface. Consequently, the proposed method was able to estimate accurately the inductor value, track the reference voltage perfectly, and show its robustness against parameter variations.
A PID controller is a control mechanism widely used in industrial systems that attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and desired setpoint. It does this by calculating and outputting a corrective action based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms that can rapidly adjust the process and keep the error minimal. The weighted sum of these three terms is used to control an element like a valve or heating element position. Tuning the gains of each term provides control tailored to the specific process requirements.
Model Predictive Control For Integrating ProcessesEmerson Exchange
The document discusses controlling integrating processes like liquid levels using model predictive control (MPC). It explains that integrating processes require control since they have no natural equilibrium. The key points covered are:
- MPC can effectively control integrating processes by considering feedback, model correction, rotation factors, and tuning parameters.
- Tuning time to steady state, penalty on move, and model correction factor impact control performance for setpoint changes and load disturbances.
- With proper tuning, MPC provides improved control of integrating processes compared to conventional PI control.
A parallel-in parallel-out shift register is designed to take in parallel data, shift it internally, and then output the shifted data in parallel. The design uses D flip-flops connected in a loop so that on each clock pulse, the data is shifted one position to the left or right. Mode control inputs determine the direction of shifting and whether the data is loaded in parallel or shifted serially. The design allows cascading multiple shift registers together to process more data bits.
A modulo-n counter is designed using D flip-flops to count from 0 to N-1 and then reset back to 0. The design is refined through steps like structural refinement to separate the counter and controller, interface refinement to
The document discusses control system design using root locus analysis and compensation techniques. It begins by introducing root locus design and its intuitive nature. PID control is then discussed from the root locus perspective. Various types of compensation including cascade, feedback, output, and input compensation are defined. PID controllers are described as consisting of cascaded PD and PI compensators to improve transient response and steady state accuracy, respectively. Lead/lag compensation is also covered as an alternative to PID control. The characteristics and effects of proportional, integral, and derivative controllers are outlined. Methods for designing lead compensation using the root locus are then presented.
Implementation of closed loop control technique for improving the performance...IJERA Editor
this review paper presents closed loop control techniques for controlling the inverter working under different load or KVA ratings. The control strategy of the inverter must guarantee its output waveforms to be sinusoidal with fundamental harmonic. For this purpose, close loop current control strategies such as H∞ repetitive controller, dual closed-loop feedback control, Adaptive Voltage Control, SRFPI controller, Optimal Neural Controller, etc. have been used to meet the power quality requirements imposed by IEEE Interconnection Standards. Based on present scenario regarding energy crises, immediate action is the use of different renewable energy sources (RESs) . Out of RESs, solar is gaining more attention. It is very important to design and developed a system which should be efficient enough to utilize the extracted energy for different types of load and feeding of energy into utility grid. Since experimentation and comparison of such inverter models on hardware being relatively expensive, the latest computing tool like MATLAB are considered to be a better alternative to simulate the outcomes of such expensive systems. The proposed closed loop control technique for the inverter working under linear and nonlinear system will be implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK working platform and results will be analyzed to check its benefits.
A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT OPEN LOOP PID TUNNING TECHNIQUE FOR A LIQ...IJITCA Journal
Process control is the application and study of automatic control to maintain a process at the desired operating condition ,safety, and efficiently while satisfying the environmental and product quality. Like the Level, Temparature & Pressure, Liquid flow Measurement is one of the major controlling parameter in
process plant. This paper mainly concern about the single tank liquid flow process and designing the controller with different PID tunning methods. Many process plants controlled by the PID controller with similar dynamics to find out the possible set of satisfactory controller parameters from the less plant
information but from the mathematical model. With minimum effort adjust the controller parameters by using three open loop PID controller IMC,CHR & AMIGO and compare their output response in real time flow tank system
A Study on Performance of Different Open Loop PID Tunning Technique for a Liq...IJITCA Journal
Process control is the application and study of automatic control to maintain a process at the desired
operating condition ,safety,and efficiently while satisfying the environmental and product quality.Like the
Level,Temparature & Pressure, Liquid flow Measurement is one of the major controlling parameter in
process plant. This paper mainly concern about the single tank liquid flow process and designing the
controller with different PID tunning methods.Many process plants controlled by the PID controller with
similar dynamics to find out the possible set of satisfactory controller parameters from the less plant
information but from the mathematical model.With minimum effort adjust the controller parameters by
using three open loop PID controller IMC,CHR & AMIGO and compare their output response in real time
flow tank system.
Sensor Fusion Study - Ch10. Additional topics in kalman filter [Stella Seoyeo...AI Robotics KR
This document discusses additional topics related to Kalman filtering, including verifying filter performance, multiple model estimation, reduced-order filtering, robust filtering, and handling delayed measurements. Specific topics covered include using innovations statistics to verify filters, running multiple filters in parallel with different models, reducing filter order to lower computational costs, making filters more robust to model uncertainties, and modifying filters to incorporate out-of-sequence measurements.
1) The document describes a fuzzy-PID cascade controller used to control the level of liquid in a horizontal tank.
2) The cascade controller uses a PID controller as the inner loop to regulate flow rate and a fuzzy logic controller as the outer loop to control the liquid level.
3) Experimental results show that the cascade controller has a faster response time, lower steady state error, and is less affected by disturbances than a simple controller.
The document discusses the extended Kalman filter (EKF), which extends the standard Kalman filter to nonlinear systems through linearization. The EKF linearizes the system equations at each time step by taking the derivative of the nonlinear functions around the current state estimate. This results in an approximate linear system that can then be processed using the standard Kalman filter equations. The key steps of the EKF algorithm are to 1) compute the linearized system matrices using derivatives, 2) use these in a first-order Taylor approximation to linearize the system equations, and 3) apply the standard Kalman filter equations to this approximate linear system to recursively estimate the state.
This document discusses cascade control in a power plant boiler. Cascade control uses two controllers, a master and slave, to more precisely control a process. In a boiler, drum level is controlled using cascade control with drum level as the master controller and feedwater flow as the slave controller. This provides improved control over drum level as steam load changes are compensated for through remote manipulation of the feedwater flow setpoint. Benefits of cascade control include reduced lag time and improved dynamic response, while drawbacks include increased complexity, cost, and controller tuning difficulty.
The document discusses Rudolf Kalman and his development of the Kalman filter, a mathematical method widely used in fields such as electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and communications. It provides background on Kalman, an overview of the Kalman filter and how it works, and examples of its applications, notably in enabling the Apollo 11 moon landing through its use in the spacecraft's guidance system. The Kalman filter provides an efficient recursive solution to problems of discrete-time data filtering and estimation in dynamic systems with random noise.
The document discusses aircraft pitch control system modeling and controller design. It describes the pitch angle and angle of attack, principles of flight, and requirements for the pitch control system. It then models the aircraft pitch transfer function and analyzes the open-loop and closed-loop response. PID, root locus and state-space controllers are designed in MATLAB and Simulink to control the aircraft pitch and meet the requirements.
This document summarizes the key aspects of Kalman filtering based on a report submitted to Dr. Muhammad Zia. It introduces Kalman filtering and its recursive two-step process to produce optimal estimates. It then discusses dynamical signal models including Gauss Markov processes. The main types of Kalman filters are described - scalar state scalar, scalar state vector, vector state vector, and extended Kalman filter. Simulation results are shown for scalar, vector, and extended Kalman filters applied to particle tracking. Matlab code for implementing the different Kalman filters is included in the appendix.
This document discusses various types of motor control, including on-off control and PID control. It begins with an overview of closed-loop control using motor feedback via encoders for velocity and position control. The main focus is on introducing PID control in a step-wise manner, first explaining on-off control and then proportional, integral and derivative controllers. It provides the mathematical formulas for these controller types and discusses implementing them in software and tuning the PID parameters.
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) The open loop transfer function is given as:
G(s) = Kp/(Ts+1)
Where T = 1 sec, Kp = 1
2) To reduce overshoot, we need to add a derivative term (lead compensation)
3) A lead compensator is of the form:
Gc(s) = (s+z)/(s+p)
Where z < p
4) Try z = 2, p = 10
5) The closed loop transfer function is:
Gcl(s) = KpGc(s)/(Ts+1+KpGc(s))
= (s+2
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) The open-loop transfer function is given as:
G(s) = Kv/s
2) To reduce overshoot, we need to add a compensator to increase the damping. A lag compensator is suitable here.
3) A lag compensator has the transfer function:
Gc(s) = (s+z)/(s+p)
4) To reduce overshoot to less than 20%, we choose z=0.1 and p=0.05
5) The closed-loop transfer function is:
T(s) = Kv(s+0.1)/(s(s+0.05))
The fundamental concepts of servo motion control have remained largely unchanged over the last 50 years. Servo systems aim to improve transient response times, reduce steady state errors, and reduce sensitivity to load parameters compared to open loop systems. There are two main classes of servo control problems - command tracking to minimize errors between commanded and actual motion, and disturbance rejection to combat unknown disturbances. Common servo control approaches like PID and PIV combine feedforward command tracking with feedback disturbance rejection. Tuning methods like Ziegler-Nichols analysis and specifying bandwidth and damping ratio help optimize PID and PIV controllers for different motion tasks like step responses or trapezoidal velocity profiles.
This document presents a comparative study of monotonic and non-monotonic phase linear time-invariant (LTI) systems using an improved analytical PID controller design. It discusses using gain crossover frequency and phase margin specifications to design controllers that ensure minimum phase margin inside the desired bandwidth. For the comparative study, it uses bode stability criterion, Nyquist stability criterion, and unit step response. It presents a case study comparing the design of controllers for a buck converter system, which exhibits a non-monotonic phase response, using both monotonic and non-monotonic design techniques. The results show that treating the non-monotonic system as monotonic leads to an overvalued proportional gain and undervalued derivative gain in the PID controller.
The document describes modeling and control of aircraft pitch dynamics. It presents the longitudinal equations of motion, transfer function and state-space models. PID and root locus controllers are designed in MATLAB to meet requirements like overshoot <10% and settling time <10 seconds. A Simulink model is built containing the physical setup, state-space model and open/closed loop responses. PID control achieves the design goals while root locus analysis places poles for natural frequency >0.9 rad/sec and zero steady-state error.
In layperson's terms: this, is droop control - 2015-06-12.r03.4Abel Rochwarger
This document provides a layperson's explanation of droop control in gas turbine generators. It defines key concepts like speed control, temperature control, base load, and droop setting. Droop control means the generator responds to grid frequency variations by changing its power output along lines of constant speed reference. This helps maintain grid frequency within acceptable limits. The document contrasts droop control with preselected load control, noting that preselected load control can sometimes cause generators to respond in a way that is counterproductive to grid needs when load references are at their limits.
Voltage Regulation of Boost Converter using Observer based Sliding Mode Contr...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This study dealt with output voltage regulation of boost converter using observer based sliding mode controller comprises of adaptive PI sliding surface. Observer was designed to estimate the inductor current value, such that no sensor was required as a feedback. Adaptive PI sliding surface was constructed from the difference between estimated inductor current and its reference value. The stability of proposed method was ensured by using Lyapunov direct method. To test the system performance, numerical simulation was conducted. The result indicated that the integral absolute error value of proposed method was 0.19, which was 7 times less than sliding mode with PI sliding surface. Consequently, the proposed method was able to estimate accurately the inductor value, track the reference voltage perfectly, and show its robustness against parameter variations.
A PID controller is a control mechanism widely used in industrial systems that attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and desired setpoint. It does this by calculating and outputting a corrective action based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms that can rapidly adjust the process and keep the error minimal. The weighted sum of these three terms is used to control an element like a valve or heating element position. Tuning the gains of each term provides control tailored to the specific process requirements.
Model Predictive Control For Integrating ProcessesEmerson Exchange
The document discusses controlling integrating processes like liquid levels using model predictive control (MPC). It explains that integrating processes require control since they have no natural equilibrium. The key points covered are:
- MPC can effectively control integrating processes by considering feedback, model correction, rotation factors, and tuning parameters.
- Tuning time to steady state, penalty on move, and model correction factor impact control performance for setpoint changes and load disturbances.
- With proper tuning, MPC provides improved control of integrating processes compared to conventional PI control.
A parallel-in parallel-out shift register is designed to take in parallel data, shift it internally, and then output the shifted data in parallel. The design uses D flip-flops connected in a loop so that on each clock pulse, the data is shifted one position to the left or right. Mode control inputs determine the direction of shifting and whether the data is loaded in parallel or shifted serially. The design allows cascading multiple shift registers together to process more data bits.
A modulo-n counter is designed using D flip-flops to count from 0 to N-1 and then reset back to 0. The design is refined through steps like structural refinement to separate the counter and controller, interface refinement to
The document discusses control system design using root locus analysis and compensation techniques. It begins by introducing root locus design and its intuitive nature. PID control is then discussed from the root locus perspective. Various types of compensation including cascade, feedback, output, and input compensation are defined. PID controllers are described as consisting of cascaded PD and PI compensators to improve transient response and steady state accuracy, respectively. Lead/lag compensation is also covered as an alternative to PID control. The characteristics and effects of proportional, integral, and derivative controllers are outlined. Methods for designing lead compensation using the root locus are then presented.
Implementation of closed loop control technique for improving the performance...IJERA Editor
this review paper presents closed loop control techniques for controlling the inverter working under different load or KVA ratings. The control strategy of the inverter must guarantee its output waveforms to be sinusoidal with fundamental harmonic. For this purpose, close loop current control strategies such as H∞ repetitive controller, dual closed-loop feedback control, Adaptive Voltage Control, SRFPI controller, Optimal Neural Controller, etc. have been used to meet the power quality requirements imposed by IEEE Interconnection Standards. Based on present scenario regarding energy crises, immediate action is the use of different renewable energy sources (RESs) . Out of RESs, solar is gaining more attention. It is very important to design and developed a system which should be efficient enough to utilize the extracted energy for different types of load and feeding of energy into utility grid. Since experimentation and comparison of such inverter models on hardware being relatively expensive, the latest computing tool like MATLAB are considered to be a better alternative to simulate the outcomes of such expensive systems. The proposed closed loop control technique for the inverter working under linear and nonlinear system will be implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK working platform and results will be analyzed to check its benefits.
A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT OPEN LOOP PID TUNNING TECHNIQUE FOR A LIQ...IJITCA Journal
Process control is the application and study of automatic control to maintain a process at the desired operating condition ,safety, and efficiently while satisfying the environmental and product quality. Like the Level, Temparature & Pressure, Liquid flow Measurement is one of the major controlling parameter in
process plant. This paper mainly concern about the single tank liquid flow process and designing the controller with different PID tunning methods. Many process plants controlled by the PID controller with similar dynamics to find out the possible set of satisfactory controller parameters from the less plant
information but from the mathematical model. With minimum effort adjust the controller parameters by using three open loop PID controller IMC,CHR & AMIGO and compare their output response in real time flow tank system
A Study on Performance of Different Open Loop PID Tunning Technique for a Liq...IJITCA Journal
Process control is the application and study of automatic control to maintain a process at the desired
operating condition ,safety,and efficiently while satisfying the environmental and product quality.Like the
Level,Temparature & Pressure, Liquid flow Measurement is one of the major controlling parameter in
process plant. This paper mainly concern about the single tank liquid flow process and designing the
controller with different PID tunning methods.Many process plants controlled by the PID controller with
similar dynamics to find out the possible set of satisfactory controller parameters from the less plant
information but from the mathematical model.With minimum effort adjust the controller parameters by
using three open loop PID controller IMC,CHR & AMIGO and compare their output response in real time
flow tank system.
A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT OPEN LOOP PID TUNNING TECHNIQUE FOR A LI...IJITCA Journal
Process control is the application and study of automatic control to maintain a process at the desired operating condition ,safety,and efficiently while satisfying the environmental and product quality. Like the Level,Temparature & Pressure, Liquid flow Measurement is one of the major controlling parameter in process plant. This paper mainly concern about the single tank liquid flow process and designing the controller with different PID tunning methods.Many process plants controlled by the PID controller with similar dynamics to find out the possible set of satisfactory controller parameters from the less plant information but from the mathematical model.With minimum effort adjust the controller parameters by using three open loop PID controller IMC,CHR & AMIGOand compare their output response in real time flow tank system.
The document discusses control system assessment in terms of stability, reference tracking, and disturbance rejection. It provides an example of assessing the performance of a heating system controlled with a proportional controller. The key points are:
1) Closed-loop stability depends on the poles of the closed-loop transfer function being in the left half of the s-plane.
2) Reference tracking performance is assessed by examining the system response and steady-state error.
3) Disturbance rejection performance looks at the speed and size of the system response to disturbances.
Control tutorials for matlab and simulink introduction pid controller desig...ssuser27c61e
This document introduces PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controllers and how they can be used to improve closed-loop system performance. It describes how each of the P, I, and D terms affect rise time, overshoot, settling time, and steady-state error. An example using a mass-spring-damper system demonstrates how to design PID controllers manually and use MATLAB's automatic tuning tools to design controllers. The document provides guidelines for designing PID controllers and introduces PID controller objects and functions in MATLAB.
This document presents a method for driving a chemical process output to a new operating level in minimum time using bang-bang control. The method involves:
1) Modeling the process using a second-order model with time delay and fitting the model parameters to process response data.
2) Calculating the switching times between maximum and minimum input levels using the model to achieve an optimal response time.
3) Implementing the bang-bang control by switching the input at the calculated times to drive the process output to the new level, then returning to conventional control.
The method provides improved set-point responses for processes compared to conventional control, without requiring detailed process dynamics information.
Comprehensive Approach Towards Modelling and Simulation of Single Area Power...IRJET Journal
This document describes modeling and simulation of a single area power generation system using MATLAB. It begins by developing a state space model of the open loop system. Simulation shows large undershoot, long settling time, and steady state error. Then, a PI controller is added to improve the response. The controlled system is stabilized using LQR design. Simulation results show the PI controlled system has a settling time of 0.7 seconds, zero steady state error, and 5.45% undershoot, meeting control objectives.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
Determination of Equivalent Circuit parameters and performance characteristic...pvpriya2
Includes the testing of induction motor to draw the circle diagram of induction motor with step wise procedure and calculation for the same. Also explains the working and application of Induction generator
Supermarket Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Supermarket management is a stand-alone J2EE using Eclipse Juno program.
This project contains all the necessary required information about maintaining
the supermarket billing system.
The core idea of this project to minimize the paper work and centralize the
data. Here all the communication is taken in secure manner. That is, in this
application the information will be stored in client itself. For further security the
data base is stored in the back-end oracle and so no intruders can access it.
Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) Calculator ManualMassimo Talia
The aim of this manual is to explain the
methodology behind the Levelized Cost of
Hydrogen (LCOH) calculator. Moreover, this
manual also demonstrates how the calculator
can be used for estimating the expenses associated with hydrogen production in Europe
using low-temperature electrolysis considering different sources of electricity
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
This study Examines the Effectiveness of Talent Procurement through the Imple...DharmaBanothu
In the world with high technology and fast
forward mindset recruiters are walking/showing interest
towards E-Recruitment. Present most of the HRs of
many companies are choosing E-Recruitment as the best
choice for recruitment. E-Recruitment is being done
through many online platforms like Linkedin, Naukri,
Instagram , Facebook etc. Now with high technology E-
Recruitment has gone through next level by using
Artificial Intelligence too.
Key Words : Talent Management, Talent Acquisition , E-
Recruitment , Artificial Intelligence Introduction
Effectiveness of Talent Acquisition through E-
Recruitment in this topic we will discuss about 4important
and interlinked topics which are
A high-Speed Communication System is based on the Design of a Bi-NoC Router, ...DharmaBanothu
The Network on Chip (NoC) has emerged as an effective
solution for intercommunication infrastructure within System on
Chip (SoC) designs, overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods that face significant bottlenecks. However, the complexity
of NoC design presents numerous challenges related to
performance metrics such as scalability, latency, power
consumption, and signal integrity. This project addresses the
issues within the router's memory unit and proposes an enhanced
memory structure. To achieve efficient data transfer, FIFO buffers
are implemented in distributed RAM and virtual channels for
FPGA-based NoC. The project introduces advanced FIFO-based
memory units within the NoC router, assessing their performance
in a Bi-directional NoC (Bi-NoC) configuration. The primary
objective is to reduce the router's workload while enhancing the
FIFO internal structure. To further improve data transfer speed,
a Bi-NoC with a self-configurable intercommunication channel is
suggested. Simulation and synthesis results demonstrate
guaranteed throughput, predictable latency, and equitable
network access, showing significant improvement over previous
designs
Zener Diode and its V-I Characteristics and Applications
Level tuning. by zakpdf
1. PETROCONTROL
Advanced Control and Optimization
34 East 30th
Street, New York, NY 10016 • Tel: 212-481-6195 • Fax: 212-447-8756
zak@petrocontrol.com
TUNING OF AVERAGING LEVEL CONTROLLER
By
Y. Zak Friedman, PhD
Principal Consultant
Published in Hydrocarbon Processing Journal, December 1994
2. Averaging level controller tuning, page 2
TUNING OF AVERAGING LEVEL CONTROLLERS.
A friend of mine showed me the latest and greatest in level control technology. Look at
Figure 1, he said, obviously the level movement is an indication of mass imbalance:
Fin - Fout = A * (dL/dt) [1]
Fin = flow of liquid into the vessel
Fout = flow of liquid out of the vessel
A = cross sectional area of the vessel
dt = the time between scans
(dL/dt) = level rate of change.
The level controller operates by manipulating the outlet flow. Every scan it implements
flow changes:
dFo1, dFo2, dFo3, ------------ , dFok
dFo1 = the change in outlet flow after the first scan from now
dFo2 = the change in outlet flow after the second scan from now
'
'
'
dFok = the change in outlet flow after a certain time horizon of
interest: k scans.
We assume that from now on the inlet flow will remain constant. The integral form of
equation 1 then takes the form of:
k
A * (Lk - L0) = A * dL0 * k - ΣΣΣΣ ((k-i+1)*dt*dFoi) [2]
i=1
Lk = the level that will be reached after the time horizon of k scans
L0 = the current level reading
dL0 = the change of level from the previous to the current scan.
It indicates the initial mass imbalance.
We wish to bring the level to its setpoint after the time horizon H, while at the same time
minimize the movement of the manipulated variable Fout. This desire can be
expressed mathematically as:
k
Minimize ΣΣΣΣ (dFoi)**2 [3]
i = 1
3. Averaging level controller tuning, page 3
Subject to the constraint of equation 2, except we replace Lk by the setpoint LSP, to
express the desire to reach the setpoint after k moves:
k
A * (LSP - L0) = A * dL0 * k - ΣΣΣΣ ((k-i+1)*dt*dFoi) [4]
i=1
LSP = The level controller setpoint
With the help of some textbooks, my friend solved the problem as shown in equation 5,
for the first control action dFo1. We take interest only in dFo1 because each scan the
controller has to only come up with the next move. The solution for dFo1 is:
dFo1 = C1 * dL0 + C2 * dt * (L0-LSP) [5]
C1 = 4 * A / H
C2 = 6 A / (H**2)
H = the time horizon = dt * k
This is nice, I said. Lets compare it to the famous Proportional Integral (PI) algorithm in
its velocity form:
dM = Kc * dL0 + (Kc/TI) * dt * (L0-LSP) [6]
dM = change of the manipulated variable = dFo1
Kc = controller gain
TI = controller reset time.
You have discovered the PI algorithm I told my friend, with settings of:
Kc = 4 * A / H [7]
TI = .67 * H
There was a moment of silence. It turned out that my friend's company offers a
package, which provides the controller of equation 5 on a host computer, not realizing
that any DCS would be quite capable of providing the same, or even better PI controller.
I am writing this not to embarrass the company in question, but rather to show again
here that the PI algorithm is mighty good for level control, and usually no alternatives
are needed. I would also like to suggest a way of tuning for the averaging level
controller based not on some arbitrary time horizon but by relating the tuning constants
to physical characteristics of the vessel in question.
4. Averaging level controller tuning, page 4
The Averaging Level Control Objective
Figure 2 shows two level applications with entirely different objectives. The objective of
figure 2A is to keep the level always at its setpoint, while moving the manipulated
variable as much as it takes to steady the level quickly. In contrast, the objective of
figure 2B is to minimize the movement of the manipulated variable while keeping the
level within its alarm limits. This second application is called Averaging Level Control,
and it is the subject of this paper.
Before attempting to tune the controller, it would be useful to quantify the control
objective. Say the controller is at steady state and the level is at setpoint. At some
point a disturbance comes in such that the previous inlet flow changes by FD. Equation
1 tells us that the level will then start changing at a rate of:
(dL/dt) = FD / A [8]
The objective is to tune the controller such that it can handle a flow disturbance of
magnitude FD without exceeding the alarm limits. It is assumed that before the
disturbance occurred the vessel was at steady state with its level reading being equal to
the setpoint. After reaching a level peak, which would almost equal the alarm setting,
the objective is to gradually bring the level back to its setpoint.
But how to choose the magnitude of FD? One obvious way is by observing the plant
operation and selecting one of the largest disturbances. Another way, less precise but
often more practical is to set FD as 20% of the typical outlet flow. 20% step change is a
fairly large flow disturbance, and thus the resulting control settings will not often trigger
an alarm.
Setting the Initial Controller Gain
Consider next a proportional only controller. Not that one is recommended, but in the
initial part of the response the integral action plays only a minor role and it can be
ignored. As equation 8 starts working and the level trends upwards, the proportional
action would increase the outlet flow by:
Fout = Fout0 + Kc * (L - LSP) [9]
Fout0 = the initial outlet flow before the disturbance occurred
The manipulated variable Fout will continue to increase as long as the level is rising,
until finally, when the outlet flow equals the inlet flow, the level would stabilize at a new
reading:
Fout = Fout0 + FD = Fout0 + Kc * (L - LSP) [10]
5. Averaging level controller tuning, page 5
Or:
FD = Kc * (L - LSP) [11]
Our tuning objective specifies that at that time the level will be just equal to the alarm
limit, and that gives us a formula for calculating the controller gain:
Kc = FD / (LIMIT - LSP) [12]
LIMIT = the alarm limit of the controller
From a control point of view it is best to select the setpoint to be at the middle of the
range, i.e., 50% of the level, and have alarm limits at 20% and 80%. Though of course
the setting of level setpoint and limits depends not only on control considerations but
also on vessel geometry and process considerations.
Equation 12 gives the gain in engineering units of say BPD / %. Since most DCS
systems work not in engineering units but in % of range, the gain of equation 12 needs
to be modified to:
Kc% = (FD / Frange) * ((Lrange / (LIMIT - LSP) [13]
Frange = The range of the manipulated variable flow measurement.
Lrange = The range of the level measurement. Normally 100%.
Setting the Initial Reset Time
Once a new steady level is reached after a disturbance, the whole plant has stabilized.
Is there a need to apply a reset action which would disturb the newly accomplished
steady state, only to bring the level back to its setpoint? The answer is "yes", if you
wish to regain the freedom of movement in both directions. But how quickly do we need
to regain that freedom? The simple answer is that the level should be brought back to
its setpoint in time to meet the next major disturbance. However we do not precisely
know when the next disturbance would come.
A reasonable way to address this uncertainty is to relate the reset time to the
disturbance residence time in the vessel. The disturbance residence time is defined as:
RTIME = VS / FD [14]
VS = The surge volume. This is the volume bound between the level
setpoint LSP and the level alarm limit LIMIT. The units of VS
must be such that RTIME is calculated in minutes.
RTIME = Disturbance residence time in minutes
6. Averaging level controller tuning, page 6
A starting point which is likely to give a good result is a reset time of:
TI = 4 * RTIME [15]
By "good result" it is meant that there would be a reasonable tradeoff between using the
surge volume of the vessel, and between recovering quickly from an upset situation.
Tuning Test
Most level loops will have no dynamic difficulties with the settings of equations 13 and
15. Loops without dead time would certainly perform well. Loops with some dead time
will likely still perform well because averaging level tuning calls for slow, stable
responses. It happens however that due to improper vessel design, interactions with
other loops or excessive dead time, the controller cannot support the initial tuning
objective. The response then becomes oscillatory. This section suggests a set of rules
for tuning averaging level loops which exhibit such oscillatory behavior.
Since averaging level tuning is normally stable, it would be a good idea, in case of
sustained oscillations, to first check whether these oscillations are the result of unstable
level control or just simply an oscillatory disturbance. When in doubt, the level controller
can be turned to Manual. If the oscillations were caused by level instability they would
then die down.
If it has been established that the level controller is responsible for the oscillations, the
presence of these oscillations indicates unusual dynamic problems as stated above. It
is advisable then to have discussions with process engineers and operators to
understand why the loop is oscillatory. Attention should be paid to the heat exchange
system which often provides the mechanism for slow loop to loop interactions.
When there are oscillations, either damped or unstable, the reset time ought to be
considered first. For a satisfactory response the reset time should be at least twice as
long as the oscillation period. The period of oscillation is defined in Figure 3 as twice
the time between the first high and first low peaks of a response.
If TI is sufficiently long and the response is still too oscillatory, it is an indication that this
loop cannot fulfill the objective of handling a disturbance of magnitude FD. There is a
need then to reduce the gain until the loop response is satisfactory. For level control
loops, it would be reasonable to allow no more than three peaks in the response: One
high and one low, followed by another small high or low peak. As shown if Figure 3, the
loop then will have no more than one overshoot and one undershoot.
Once the new gain is set, equation 12 can be rearranged to assess how much of a
disturbance this controller can now handle without sounding an alarm:
FD = Kc * (LIMIT - LSP) [16]
7. Averaging level controller tuning, page 7
If FD is lower than 10% of the normal outlet flow, the loop will likely remain a problem
loop.
Nonlinear Control Algorithms.
Some DCS systems have the facility of scheduling the controller gain Kc, so that it
would increase with control deviation as follows:
Kc = Kl * (1. + Knl * ABS (L - LSP) / 100) [17]
Kl = The linear control gain
Knl = A nonlinear coefficient
Such a control action provides the ability to reduce the manipulated variable activity at
small disturbances, at the expense of large adjustments when there are large
disturbances.
In the author's opinion, the usefulness of nonlinear level algorithms is overrated. If the
mass imbalance disturbance is large, then a weak initial action will cause the level to
stray further away from setpoint. The level will eventually reach the region of higher
gain and force the strong action required for the disturbance. The changes in the
manipulated variable will then be even more abrupt than those of the linear controller.
As a rule, vessels whose residence time is too short perform better with linear control.
Vessels whose residence time is adequate give a somewhat better performance with
nonlinear control.
For tuning the nonlinear algorithm, it is recommended to first find Kcmax as per
equation 13:
Kcmax = (FD / Frange) * ((Lrange / (LIMIT - LSP) [18]
Then set Kl and Knl so that the control action would double when approaching the level
limit:
Kl = Kcmax / 2 [19]
Knl =100 / ABS (LIMIT - LSP) [20]
Direct Level to Valve Control.
Modern units are likely to have most of their level controllers cascading to flow
controllers. Such cascades are easier to tune because the level - flow process gain
remains constant. The tuning procedure for a level to valve type controller is similar to
that of the cascade, except for the units of the flow disturbance FD. For determining the
controller gain there is a need to define FD not as volume per time, but in terms of how
a flow disturbance of magnitude FD would change the opening of the valve. I.e., FD
must be defined as % valve position change. Frange of equation 13 is then 100%.
8. Averaging level controller tuning, page 8
Once that is done, equation 13 can be used. However, for calculating the reset time
according to equation 14 and 15, FD must be defined again in terms of volume per unit
time, or % level per unit time, so that the reset time is in minutes.
Level Reading Correction With Irregular Shape of the Vessel.
Many DCS systems have the ability to correct the level reading so that it represents real
volume, rather than height. To determine whether the additional complication of
correcting that reading is worth it, there is a need to discriminate between two cases.
First consider the special, but common case of a horizontal vessel, where the level
setpoint is at the middle of the vessel, and the high and low limits are at 20% and 80%
of the vessel diameter respectively. Second consider a more general case of irregular
vessels.
To begin with the special case of the level setpoint being at the middle of a horizontal
vessel, the Pythagorean theorem shows that at 80% or 20% level reading, the cross
sectional area is reduced to 80% of the area in the middle of the cylinder. The effect of
that reading error would be similar to the nonlinear controller of equation 17, with the
control gain being 25% stronger at high deviations (1/0.8 = 1.25). Hence we conclude
that it is in fact desirable to have such an error and no level linearization is required.
About the same conclusion can be reached for a spherical vessel, except there the area
at the limits is 64% of the area in the middle, and the nonlinear effect is then so that the
gain at the limits is 56% stronger than in the middle. This increase is perfectly
acceptable, as evidenced by the recommendation of equations 18 through 20.
For the general case of irregular shape, or even for cylinders where the setpoint is not in
the middle, it is recommended that level correction be performed, if that is possible.
Otherwise the controller becomes difficult to tune and the tuning objective looses its
meaning.
Conclusions
The PI algorithm is an excellent device for controlling level. To this date no better
alternatives have been established.
The control objective calls for a weak reset action, often resulting in reset times in the
order of one hour.
The method proposed here for tuning the PI level controller has been widely applied
and is known to work well. It makes maximum use of the surge capacity of a vessel,
and in so doing it tends to stabilize the whole plant.
Nonlinear level control can be counter-productive when the vessel is too small. When
the vessel size is adequate nonlinear level control has a small advantage over linear
control.