Disk-based storage uses a memory hierarchy to balance performance and cost. Large, slower disks are used for persistent storage due to their low cost per byte, while smaller, faster memory like DRAM is used for temporary storage. A disk contains platters that spin, allowing read/write heads to access sectors organized into tracks on the platters. Disk access time is dominated by seek time to position the heads and rotational latency waiting for the desired sector to spin under the head. Disks present a logical block interface to the operating system, while sectors are mapped to physical locations on disk surfaces.
The document summarizes different types of computer hardware including auxiliary storage devices, input/output architecture, and interfaces. It describes magnetic tape, disks, floppy disks, optical disks, and semiconductor disks. It also covers RAID configurations, input/output control methods like bus, DMA, and different interfaces like serial, parallel, SCSI, and USB.
CS 542 Putting it all together -- Storage ManagementJ Singh
The document provides an overview and plan for a lecture on database management systems. Key points include:
- By the second break, the lecture will cover storage hierarchies, secondary storage management, and system catalogs.
- After the second break, the topics will include data modeling and storage hierarchies.
- Storage hierarchies involve multiple storage levels from main memory to disk and beyond. The cost and performance of each level differs.
- Techniques like caching aim to keep frequently used data in faster storage levels like memory.
The document discusses different types of computer memory including cache memory, RAM, and solid state drives. It explains that cache memory is faster than RAM and stores frequently accessed data from RAM to improve performance. It also describes the components and workings of traditional hard disk drives, comparing factors like latency and transfer rates for different RPM speeds. Solid state drives are also introduced as an alternative to hard drives that have advantages like faster access times but higher costs.
UNIT IV FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O SYSTEMS 9
Mass Storage system – Overview of Mass Storage Structure, Disk Structure, Disk Scheduling and Management, swap space management; File-System Interface – File concept, Access methods, Directory Structure, Directory organization, File system mounting, File Sharing and Protection; File System Implementation- File System Structure, Directory implementation, Allocation Methods, Free Space Management, Efficiency and Performance, Recovery; I/O Systems – I/O Hardware, Application I/O interface, Kernel I/O subsystem, Streams, Performance.
This document discusses physical storage media and file organization. It describes different types of storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage in terms of their speed, capacity, reliability and other characteristics. It also discusses the storage hierarchy from fastest volatile cache/memory to slower non-volatile secondary storage like disks to slowest tertiary storage like tapes. The document further explains techniques like RAID and file organization to optimize storage access and reliability in the presence of disk failures.
This document provides an overview of chapter 3 on disk scheduling. It describes the physical structure of disks including platters, cylinders, and sectors. It explains seek time and rotational latency which determine disk access performance. Several disk scheduling algorithms are presented, including FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK, which aim to minimize disk head movement and wait times. The document also discusses disk interfaces, solid state disks, tape storage, low-level formatting, partitioning, and boot processes from disk.
This document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. It provides an overview of disk components and performance characteristics. It describes disk addressing and various disk scheduling algorithms such as FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK. It also discusses RAID levels, disk management, swap space management, and how to implement stable storage.
This document discusses various computer storage technologies including:
- FIFO and LRU caching algorithms.
- Hard disk drives including cylinders, tracks, sectors, and clusters. Latency is discussed in relation to rotational speed.
- Solid state drives and their advantages over hard disk drives like speed and lack of moving parts.
- SATA vs ATA interfaces and performance comparisons.
- RAID disk arrays and their use of redundancy to increase reliability.
- NTFS and FAT16 file systems. NTFS supports long filenames and compression while FAT16 has limitations like a 2GB size limit.
The document summarizes different types of computer hardware including auxiliary storage devices, input/output architecture, and interfaces. It describes magnetic tape, disks, floppy disks, optical disks, and semiconductor disks. It also covers RAID configurations, input/output control methods like bus, DMA, and different interfaces like serial, parallel, SCSI, and USB.
CS 542 Putting it all together -- Storage ManagementJ Singh
The document provides an overview and plan for a lecture on database management systems. Key points include:
- By the second break, the lecture will cover storage hierarchies, secondary storage management, and system catalogs.
- After the second break, the topics will include data modeling and storage hierarchies.
- Storage hierarchies involve multiple storage levels from main memory to disk and beyond. The cost and performance of each level differs.
- Techniques like caching aim to keep frequently used data in faster storage levels like memory.
The document discusses different types of computer memory including cache memory, RAM, and solid state drives. It explains that cache memory is faster than RAM and stores frequently accessed data from RAM to improve performance. It also describes the components and workings of traditional hard disk drives, comparing factors like latency and transfer rates for different RPM speeds. Solid state drives are also introduced as an alternative to hard drives that have advantages like faster access times but higher costs.
UNIT IV FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O SYSTEMS 9
Mass Storage system – Overview of Mass Storage Structure, Disk Structure, Disk Scheduling and Management, swap space management; File-System Interface – File concept, Access methods, Directory Structure, Directory organization, File system mounting, File Sharing and Protection; File System Implementation- File System Structure, Directory implementation, Allocation Methods, Free Space Management, Efficiency and Performance, Recovery; I/O Systems – I/O Hardware, Application I/O interface, Kernel I/O subsystem, Streams, Performance.
This document discusses physical storage media and file organization. It describes different types of storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage in terms of their speed, capacity, reliability and other characteristics. It also discusses the storage hierarchy from fastest volatile cache/memory to slower non-volatile secondary storage like disks to slowest tertiary storage like tapes. The document further explains techniques like RAID and file organization to optimize storage access and reliability in the presence of disk failures.
This document provides an overview of chapter 3 on disk scheduling. It describes the physical structure of disks including platters, cylinders, and sectors. It explains seek time and rotational latency which determine disk access performance. Several disk scheduling algorithms are presented, including FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK, which aim to minimize disk head movement and wait times. The document also discusses disk interfaces, solid state disks, tape storage, low-level formatting, partitioning, and boot processes from disk.
This document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. It provides an overview of disk components and performance characteristics. It describes disk addressing and various disk scheduling algorithms such as FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK. It also discusses RAID levels, disk management, swap space management, and how to implement stable storage.
This document discusses various computer storage technologies including:
- FIFO and LRU caching algorithms.
- Hard disk drives including cylinders, tracks, sectors, and clusters. Latency is discussed in relation to rotational speed.
- Solid state drives and their advantages over hard disk drives like speed and lack of moving parts.
- SATA vs ATA interfaces and performance comparisons.
- RAID disk arrays and their use of redundancy to increase reliability.
- NTFS and FAT16 file systems. NTFS supports long filenames and compression while FAT16 has limitations like a 2GB size limit.
Nachos 2
The document discusses various data storage technologies including FIFO, LRU, cache memory, hard disk drives, solid state drives, SATA vs ATA interfaces, and RAID disk arrays. It provides details on the characteristics and implementations of each technology, such as how FIFO and LRU ordering techniques work, the components and operation of hard disks, performance comparisons of SATA and ATA interfaces, and the use of redundancy in RAID arrays.
This document discusses mass storage systems. It begins with an overview of disk structure, including details on disk performance characteristics like seek time and rotational latency. It then covers topics like disk scheduling algorithms, disk management in operating systems, swap space management, RAID structures, and implementing stable storage. RAID levels like mirroring and striping with parity are explained. The document provides information on technologies like solid-state disks, magnetic tape, storage arrays, and network-attached storage.
The document discusses mass storage systems and disk drives. It covers topics like:
- Magnetic disks provide most secondary storage and rotate at speeds from 4200 to 15000 rpm.
- Disks are addressed as logical blocks mapped sequentially to physical sectors.
- Disks connect via interfaces like SATA, SCSI, and Fibre Channel and can be host-attached or network-attached.
- Disk scheduling algorithms like SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, and LOOK are used to optimize disk head movement and bandwidth utilization.
This document discusses storage and file structure. It covers physical storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage. It describes how disks are organized into tracks and sectors. RAID systems are discussed which provide redundancy across multiple disks for reliability and use striping for increased performance. Different RAID levels are outlined which provide varying levels of redundancy through techniques like mirroring, parity bits, and error correction codes.
Chapter 12 discusses mass storage systems and their role in operating systems. It describes the physical structure of disks and tapes and how they are accessed. Disks are organized into logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors. Disks connect to computers via I/O buses and controllers. RAID systems improve reliability through redundancy across multiple disks. Operating systems provide services for disk scheduling, management, and swap space. Tertiary storage uses tape drives and removable disks to archive less frequently used data in large installations.
The document discusses the logical and physical structure of hard disks, including disk drives, platters, tracks, sectors, clusters, and file systems. It provides an overview of different types of disk interfaces like SCSI, IDE, USB, ATA, and Fibre Channel. It also covers topics like disk partitioning, file structures like FAT, NTFS, Ext2 and HFS, and RAID levels.
This document discusses mass storage systems and disk drives. It provides an overview of disk structure, including platters, sectors, and cylinders. It describes disk performance characteristics like seek time, rotational latency, and transfer rates. It examines disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK which aim to minimize head movement. It also discusses disk management by the operating system, including partitioning, formatting, and file system organization.
This document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. It provides an overview of disk components and performance characteristics. Several disk scheduling algorithms are described such as FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK and factors in selecting an algorithm are discussed. RAID levels 1-6 are summarized. The document also covers disk management, swap space management, and implementing stable storage using replication across independent storage media.
This chapter discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. Disks are addressed as logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors on disks. The operating system manages disk requests and queues using scheduling algorithms like SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN to minimize seek times. RAID uses multiple disks for redundancy and improved performance. Stable storage is implemented by replicating writes to two physical blocks to ensure data is not lost due to failure.
This document discusses input/output (I/O) systems and performance. It begins by explaining that I/O devices allow computers to communicate with the outside world through input and output. While I/O performance affects overall system speed, I/O is much slower than CPU and memory. Common I/O devices include hard drives, networks, keyboards and displays. The document then discusses how these devices connect to the computer system and estimates their data transfer speeds.
This document provides an overview of mass storage systems and disk management techniques. It discusses disk structure, performance characteristics, scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN and C-LOOK. It also covers disk attachment methods, storage arrays, storage area networks, solid-state disks, magnetic tape and swap space management. The goal is to describe physical structures, performance, scheduling and operating system services for mass storage devices.
This document discusses physical storage media and file organization in a database system. It describes different types of storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage. It explains the hierarchy of storage from fastest but volatile primary storage to slower but non-volatile secondary and tertiary storage. The document also discusses techniques for improving performance and reliability of disk storage, including RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks) and how it uses data striping and redundancy across multiple disks to provide improved I/O performance and fault tolerance. It outlines several RAID levels that trade off performance, reliability, and cost in different ways.
This document discusses mass storage systems and file systems. It begins with an overview of disk structure, including disk geometry, performance characteristics, and disk scheduling algorithms. RAID structures are also introduced. The document then covers file system concepts like file attributes and operations. It describes directory structures, file sharing, and file protection methods. Overall it provides a comprehensive overview of mass storage and file system interfaces from the operating system perspective.
This document discusses the evolution of disk drive storage over the past 50+ years and design challenges going forward. It covers topics like areal density, magnetic recording technologies, disk controller architecture, reliability concerns, and energy efficiency techniques. New disk drive architectures are proposed using multiple spindles or dynamic RPM modulation to improve performance within power and heat constraints as areal density limits are approached. Flash memory is also discussed as a potential replacement for bridging performance gaps.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers volatile storage like cache and main memory, and non-volatile storage like magnetic disks, flash memory, optical disks, and tape. It describes how magnetic disks work and factors that influence disk performance like seek time, rotational latency, and transfer rate. Optimization techniques for disk block access like file organization and write buffering are also summarized.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers magnetic disks, optical storage, tape storage, and storage hierarchy. It also describes different RAID levels that provide redundancy to improve reliability and use parallelism to improve performance. Key factors in choosing a RAID level are discussed.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers volatile storage like cache and main memory, and non-volatile storage like magnetic disks, flash memory, optical disks, and tape. It also discusses storage hierarchies and optimizations for magnetic disk access like disk blocking, file organization, write buffers, and RAID configurations.
The document summarizes mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, and tertiary storage devices. It discusses how disks are logically addressed and mapped to physical sectors. It describes common disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN and factors in selecting an algorithm. It also outlines disk formatting, partitioning, bad block handling, and swap space management in operating systems.
The document discusses mass storage systems, including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, and tertiary storage devices. It provides details on disk formatting, swap space management, different RAID levels, network attached storage, stable storage implementation, removable media like tapes and optical disks, operating system issues, and hierarchical storage management.
The document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, and tertiary storage devices. It provides details on how disks are logically structured and mapped, common disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN, and how operating systems manage disks through partitioning and formatting. It also summarizes RAID levels, approaches to stable storage, and examples of tertiary storage devices like tapes, optical disks, and removable magnetic disks.
This document discusses schema refinement through normalization. Schema refinement aims to eliminate data redundancy and anomalies like insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. It introduces normalization as a technique to decompose tables and refine the schema. Redundancy can lead to problems like redundant storage, update anomalies if one copy of data is changed without updating others, and insertion and deletion anomalies where adding or removing data could impact unrelated information. The document uses an example of a student details table to illustrate these problems and how decomposition can address redundancy.
joins in dbms its describes about how joins are important and necessity in d...AshokRachapalli1
Joins in DBMS allow combining data from multiple tables. Inner joins return rows where the join condition is satisfied, while outer joins also return rows with no matches and fill unmatched columns with NULL. Natural joins automatically join on common columns with matching names and domains, while theta joins use any comparison operator in the join condition. Equi joins specifically use equality comparisons.
Nachos 2
The document discusses various data storage technologies including FIFO, LRU, cache memory, hard disk drives, solid state drives, SATA vs ATA interfaces, and RAID disk arrays. It provides details on the characteristics and implementations of each technology, such as how FIFO and LRU ordering techniques work, the components and operation of hard disks, performance comparisons of SATA and ATA interfaces, and the use of redundancy in RAID arrays.
This document discusses mass storage systems. It begins with an overview of disk structure, including details on disk performance characteristics like seek time and rotational latency. It then covers topics like disk scheduling algorithms, disk management in operating systems, swap space management, RAID structures, and implementing stable storage. RAID levels like mirroring and striping with parity are explained. The document provides information on technologies like solid-state disks, magnetic tape, storage arrays, and network-attached storage.
The document discusses mass storage systems and disk drives. It covers topics like:
- Magnetic disks provide most secondary storage and rotate at speeds from 4200 to 15000 rpm.
- Disks are addressed as logical blocks mapped sequentially to physical sectors.
- Disks connect via interfaces like SATA, SCSI, and Fibre Channel and can be host-attached or network-attached.
- Disk scheduling algorithms like SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, and LOOK are used to optimize disk head movement and bandwidth utilization.
This document discusses storage and file structure. It covers physical storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage. It describes how disks are organized into tracks and sectors. RAID systems are discussed which provide redundancy across multiple disks for reliability and use striping for increased performance. Different RAID levels are outlined which provide varying levels of redundancy through techniques like mirroring, parity bits, and error correction codes.
Chapter 12 discusses mass storage systems and their role in operating systems. It describes the physical structure of disks and tapes and how they are accessed. Disks are organized into logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors. Disks connect to computers via I/O buses and controllers. RAID systems improve reliability through redundancy across multiple disks. Operating systems provide services for disk scheduling, management, and swap space. Tertiary storage uses tape drives and removable disks to archive less frequently used data in large installations.
The document discusses the logical and physical structure of hard disks, including disk drives, platters, tracks, sectors, clusters, and file systems. It provides an overview of different types of disk interfaces like SCSI, IDE, USB, ATA, and Fibre Channel. It also covers topics like disk partitioning, file structures like FAT, NTFS, Ext2 and HFS, and RAID levels.
This document discusses mass storage systems and disk drives. It provides an overview of disk structure, including platters, sectors, and cylinders. It describes disk performance characteristics like seek time, rotational latency, and transfer rates. It examines disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK which aim to minimize head movement. It also discusses disk management by the operating system, including partitioning, formatting, and file system organization.
This document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. It provides an overview of disk components and performance characteristics. Several disk scheduling algorithms are described such as FCFS, SCAN, C-SCAN, and C-LOOK and factors in selecting an algorithm are discussed. RAID levels 1-6 are summarized. The document also covers disk management, swap space management, and implementing stable storage using replication across independent storage media.
This chapter discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, RAID structures, and stable storage implementation. Disks are addressed as logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors on disks. The operating system manages disk requests and queues using scheduling algorithms like SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN to minimize seek times. RAID uses multiple disks for redundancy and improved performance. Stable storage is implemented by replicating writes to two physical blocks to ensure data is not lost due to failure.
This document discusses input/output (I/O) systems and performance. It begins by explaining that I/O devices allow computers to communicate with the outside world through input and output. While I/O performance affects overall system speed, I/O is much slower than CPU and memory. Common I/O devices include hard drives, networks, keyboards and displays. The document then discusses how these devices connect to the computer system and estimates their data transfer speeds.
This document provides an overview of mass storage systems and disk management techniques. It discusses disk structure, performance characteristics, scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN and C-LOOK. It also covers disk attachment methods, storage arrays, storage area networks, solid-state disks, magnetic tape and swap space management. The goal is to describe physical structures, performance, scheduling and operating system services for mass storage devices.
This document discusses physical storage media and file organization in a database system. It describes different types of storage media like magnetic disks, flash memory, and tape storage. It explains the hierarchy of storage from fastest but volatile primary storage to slower but non-volatile secondary and tertiary storage. The document also discusses techniques for improving performance and reliability of disk storage, including RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks) and how it uses data striping and redundancy across multiple disks to provide improved I/O performance and fault tolerance. It outlines several RAID levels that trade off performance, reliability, and cost in different ways.
This document discusses mass storage systems and file systems. It begins with an overview of disk structure, including disk geometry, performance characteristics, and disk scheduling algorithms. RAID structures are also introduced. The document then covers file system concepts like file attributes and operations. It describes directory structures, file sharing, and file protection methods. Overall it provides a comprehensive overview of mass storage and file system interfaces from the operating system perspective.
This document discusses the evolution of disk drive storage over the past 50+ years and design challenges going forward. It covers topics like areal density, magnetic recording technologies, disk controller architecture, reliability concerns, and energy efficiency techniques. New disk drive architectures are proposed using multiple spindles or dynamic RPM modulation to improve performance within power and heat constraints as areal density limits are approached. Flash memory is also discussed as a potential replacement for bridging performance gaps.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers volatile storage like cache and main memory, and non-volatile storage like magnetic disks, flash memory, optical disks, and tape. It describes how magnetic disks work and factors that influence disk performance like seek time, rotational latency, and transfer rate. Optimization techniques for disk block access like file organization and write buffering are also summarized.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers magnetic disks, optical storage, tape storage, and storage hierarchy. It also describes different RAID levels that provide redundancy to improve reliability and use parallelism to improve performance. Key factors in choosing a RAID level are discussed.
The document discusses various types of physical storage media used in databases, including their characteristics and performance measures. It covers volatile storage like cache and main memory, and non-volatile storage like magnetic disks, flash memory, optical disks, and tape. It also discusses storage hierarchies and optimizations for magnetic disk access like disk blocking, file organization, write buffers, and RAID configurations.
The document summarizes mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, and tertiary storage devices. It discusses how disks are logically addressed and mapped to physical sectors. It describes common disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN and factors in selecting an algorithm. It also outlines disk formatting, partitioning, bad block handling, and swap space management in operating systems.
The document discusses mass storage systems, including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, and tertiary storage devices. It provides details on disk formatting, swap space management, different RAID levels, network attached storage, stable storage implementation, removable media like tapes and optical disks, operating system issues, and hierarchical storage management.
The document discusses mass storage systems including disk structure, disk scheduling algorithms, disk management, RAID structure, disk attachment methods, stable storage implementation, and tertiary storage devices. It provides details on how disks are logically structured and mapped, common disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, and C-SCAN, and how operating systems manage disks through partitioning and formatting. It also summarizes RAID levels, approaches to stable storage, and examples of tertiary storage devices like tapes, optical disks, and removable magnetic disks.
This document discusses schema refinement through normalization. Schema refinement aims to eliminate data redundancy and anomalies like insertion, update, and deletion anomalies. It introduces normalization as a technique to decompose tables and refine the schema. Redundancy can lead to problems like redundant storage, update anomalies if one copy of data is changed without updating others, and insertion and deletion anomalies where adding or removing data could impact unrelated information. The document uses an example of a student details table to illustrate these problems and how decomposition can address redundancy.
joins in dbms its describes about how joins are important and necessity in d...AshokRachapalli1
Joins in DBMS allow combining data from multiple tables. Inner joins return rows where the join condition is satisfied, while outer joins also return rows with no matches and fill unmatched columns with NULL. Natural joins automatically join on common columns with matching names and domains, while theta joins use any comparison operator in the join condition. Equi joins specifically use equality comparisons.
Database languages are used to define, manipulate, and control access to data in a database management system. There are four main types of database languages: Data Definition Language (DDL) defines the database structure; Data Manipulation Language (DML) reads, inserts, updates, and deletes data; Data Control Language (DCL) controls user access privileges; and Transaction Control Language (TCL) manages transactions and rolling back or committing changes to the database.
The document discusses register transfer languages (RTL) which are used to specify the operations and timing of digital circuits. It covers micro-operations which define data transfers, RTL which specifies when micro-operations occur, and how RTL specifications can be realized through hardware implementation or simulated using VHDL. Examples are provided of RTL specifications for simple counters and controllers to illustrate these concepts.
The document discusses different levels of computer memory and cache memory. It describes four levels of memory:
1) Register - Stores data accepted by the CPU.
2) Cache memory - Faster memory that temporarily stores frequently accessed data from main memory.
3) Main memory - The memory the computer currently works on but data is lost when powered off.
4) Secondary memory - External memory that stores data permanently but is slower than main memory.
It then discusses cache memory in more detail, describing it as very high-speed memory that stores copies of frequently used data from main memory to reduce average access time. It explains the concepts of cache hits, misses, and hit ratio. Finally, it
The document discusses different types of addressing modes used in computer instructions, including implied, immediate, direct, indirect, register direct, register indirect, relative, indexed, base register, auto-increment, and auto-decrement addressing modes. It provides examples and explanations of each addressing mode type.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) organization in a computer system. It describes I/O interfaces that allow communication between internal storage and external devices. Data transfer can occur via programmed I/O, interrupt-initiated I/O, or direct memory access (DMA). DMA allows direct transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement by using a DMA controller. An I/O processor (IOP) is also described, which is a dedicated processor that handles I/O operations and transfers data between devices and memory.
Virtual memory allows programs to access memory addresses that do not physically exist, expanding the available address space. It works by dividing memory into pages that are stored on disk until needed, then copied into RAM. When a program accesses a non-present page, a page fault occurs and the operating system handles copying the correct page into memory transparently to the program. This allows more programs to run than would otherwise fit in physical memory.
This document discusses techniques for reducing cache misses and improving memory performance. It introduces the concepts of compulsory, capacity and conflict misses. Methods covered for reducing misses include increasing block size, associativity, using victim caches, pseudo-associativity, hardware/software prefetching, and compiler optimizations like merging arrays, loop interchange, fusion and blocking. Both hardware and software prefetching are described as well as the tradeoffs between binding and non-binding prefetching.
Digital systems perform elementary operations called micro operations on information stored in registers. There are two main types: arithmetic micro operations that change information, such as addition, subtraction, and shift operations; and logic micro operations that perform binary operations on bit strings, like AND, OR, and XOR. Common components that perform these micro operations include binary adders, adder-subtractors, incrementers, and the Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit.
The document discusses computer instruction formats and addressing modes. It provides details on:
- Instruction codes contain operation codes and addresses to specify operations and memory/register locations.
- There are two addressing modes - direct addressing uses the operand's address while indirect uses a pointer.
- A basic instruction format has 12 bits for the address, 1 bit for the mode, and 3 bits for the operation code.
- An instruction cycle has four phases - fetch, decode, read effective address, and execute the instruction.
There are two main types of computer network architectures: peer-to-peer and client/server. Peer-to-peer networks connect computers of equal status without a central server, making them useful for small networks but less secure. Client/server networks have a central server that manages resources and authorization for client computers, providing better security, performance, and backup but at a higher cost than peer-to-peer.
A computer network can be categorized based on its size as PAN, LAN, MAN, or WAN. A PAN covers an area of about 30 feet and connects personal devices like laptops and phones. A LAN connects computers within a building using cables, providing faster data transfer and higher security than larger networks. A MAN interconnects multiple LANs within a city using telephone lines to connect organizations like businesses, schools, and governments. A WAN spans large geographic areas like countries and states, with the internet being the largest example, connecting networks globally.
Data encoding converts data into a signal form for transmission. It represents digital data with digital or analog signals. Common encoding methods include unipolar, bipolar, and polar encoding. Unipolar encoding uses a single voltage level to represent 1s and 0s, while bipolar uses two voltage levels. Specific techniques include NRZ, RZ, and biphase encoding. NRZ encodes without returning to zero between bits, while RZ returns to zero mid-bit. Biphase encodings like Manchester and differential Manchester use signal transitions to represent data and synchronize clocks. Block coding maps groups of bits to code words, like 4B/5B encoding which maps 4 data bits to 5-bit code words.
Flow control is a data link layer mechanism that regulates the amount of data sent by the sender to ensure the receiver can process it. It works by having the sender wait for acknowledgment from the receiver before sending more data. Common flow control methods include stop-and-wait, which only allows one packet to be sent at a time, and sliding window protocols, which allow multiple packets to be sent before waiting for acknowledgment. Flow control prevents buffer overflows and frame losses at the receiver.
This document summarizes a lecture on register transfer language and microoperations. It introduces register transfer language as a way to describe the transfer of data between registers using microoperations. Common microoperations include register transfer, arithmetic operations, logic operations, and shift operations. Specific circuit implementations for operations like addition, subtraction, and incrementing are discussed. Memory transfer microoperations for reading from and writing to memory are also covered.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the Python programming language. It outlines the key topics that will be covered in a Python tutorial, including basic data types, variables, control structures, functions, classes, exceptions, modules and packages, and the standard library. The document consists of slides from a 2002 presentation on Python given by Guido van Rossum, the creator of Python. It encourages attendees to follow along with the tutorial using the interactive Python shell.
This document provides an overview of the OSI reference model, which is an internationally standardized architecture for how network communication should work. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from the physical layer up to the application layer. Each layer provides services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below. The layers relate to either communication technologies (layers 1-4) or user applications (layers 5-7). The document also discusses how the OSI model differs from Internet protocols and covers concepts like connection types, reliability, and the relationship between services and protocols.
Packet switching is a technique used in computer networks where messages are divided into packets that contain header information with the destination. Each packet is routed independently through the network based on its header. There are two main approaches for packet switching: datagram packet switching treats each packet independently and routes them without maintaining connection state, while virtual circuit switching establishes a pre-planned route via a call setup before sending packets along a fixed path for the connection's duration.
Computer organization and architecture are related but distinct fields. Computer organization deals with how hardware components are interconnected and work together to realize the specifications set by computer architecture. Computer architecture determines attributes like instruction sets, memory organization, and input/output mechanisms. Studying computer organization and architecture is important for understanding how computers work at both the hardware and software levels. It provides knowledge about system design, components, and performance.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
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Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
1. Disk-based Storage
Oct. 23, 2008
Topics
Storage technologies and trends
Locality of reference
Caching in the memory hierarchy
lecture-17.ppt
15-213
“The course that gives CMU its Zip!”
3. 3 15-213, F’08
Disk-based storage in computers
Memory/storage hierarchy
Combining many technologies to balance costs/benefits
Recall the memory hierarchy and virtual memory lectures
4. 4 15-213, F’08
Memory/storage hierarchies
Balancing performance with cost
Small memories are fast but expensive
Large memories are slow but cheap
Exploit locality to get the best of both worlds
locality = re-use/nearness of accesses
allows most accesses to use small, fast memory
Capacity
Performance
5. 5 15-213, F’08
An Example Memory Hierarchy
registers
on-chip L1
cache (SRAM)
main memory
(DRAM)
local secondary storage
(local disks)
Larger,
slower,
and
cheaper
(per byte)
storage
devices
remote secondary storage
(tapes, distributed file systems, Web servers)
Local disks hold files
retrieved from disks on
remote network servers.
Main memory holds disk
blocks retrieved from local
disks.
off-chip L2
cache (SRAM)
L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved
from the L2 cache memory.
CPU registers hold words retrieved
from L1 cache.
L2 cache holds cache lines
retrieved from main memory.
L0:
L1:
L2:
L3:
L4:
L5:
Smaller,
faster,
and
costlier
(per byte)
storage
devices
From lecture-9.ppt
6. 6 15-213, F’08
Page Faults
A page fault is caused by a reference to a VM word that is not in
physical (main) memory
Example: An instruction references a word contained in VP 3, a miss
that triggers a page fault exception
null
null
Memory resident
page table
(DRAM)
Physical memory
(DRAM)
VP 7
VP 4
Virtual memory
(disk)
Valid
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Physical page
number or
disk address
PTE 0
PTE 7
PP 0
VP 2
VP 1
PP 3
VP 1
VP 2
VP 4
VP 6
VP 7
Virtual address
VP 3
From lecture-14.ppt
7. 7 15-213, F’08
Disk-based storage in computers
Memory/storage hierarchy
Combining many technologies to balance costs/benefits
Recall the memory hierarchy and virtual memory lectures
Persistence
Storing data for lengthy periods of time
DRAM/SRAM is “volatile”: contents lost if power lost
Disks are “non-volatile”: contents survive power outages
To be useful, it must also be possible to find it again later
this brings in many interesting data organization, consistency,
and management issues
take 18-746/15-746 Storage Systems
we’ll talk a bit about file systems next
8. 8 15-213, F’08
What’s Inside A Disk Drive?
Spindle
Arm
Actuator
Platters
Electronics
SCSI
connector
Image courtesy of Seagate Technology
9. 9 15-213, F’08
Disk Electronics
• Connect to disk
• Control processor
• Cache memory
• Control ASIC
• Connect to motor
Just like a small
computer – processor,
memory, network iface
10. 10 15-213, F’08
Disk “Geometry”
Disks contain platters, each with two surfaces
Each surface organized in concentric rings called tracks
Each track consists of sectors separated by gaps
spindle
surface
tracks
track k
sectors
gaps
11. 11 15-213, F’08
Disk Geometry (Muliple-Platter View)
Aligned tracks form a cylinder
surface 0
surface 1
surface 2
surface 3
surface 4
surface 5
cylinder k
spindle
platter 0
platter 1
platter 2
12. 12 15-213, F’08
Disk Structure
Read/Write Head
Upper Surface
Platter
Lower Surface
Cylinder
Track
Sector
Arm
Actuator
13. 13 15-213, F’08
Disk Operation (Single-Platter View)
The disk
surface
spins at a fixed
rotational rate
spindle
By moving radially, the arm
can position the read/write
head over any track
The read/write head
is attached to the end
of the arm and flies over
the disk surface on
a thin cushion of air
spindle
spindle
spindle
spindle
14. 14 15-213, F’08
Disk Operation (Multi-Platter View)
arm
read/write heads
move in unison
from cylinder to cylinder
spindle
15. 15 15-213, F’08
Tracks divided into sectors
Disk Structure - top view of single
platter
Surface organized into tracks
21. 21 15-213, F’08
Disk Access – Seek
After BLUE read Seek for RED
Seek to red’s track
22. 22 15-213, F’08
Disk Access – Rotational Latency
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency
Wait for red sector to rotate around
23. 23 15-213, F’08
Disk Access – Read
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency After RED read
Complete read of red
24. 24 15-213, F’08
Disk Access – Service Time
Components
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency After RED read
Seek
Rotational Latency
Data Transfer
25. 25 15-213, F’08
Disk Access Time
Average time to access a specific sector approximated by:
Taccess = Tavg seek + Tavg rotation + Tavg transfer
Seek time (Tavg seek)
Time to position heads over cylinder containing target sector
Typical Tavg seek = 3-5 ms
Rotational latency (Tavg rotation)
Time waiting for first bit of target sector to pass under r/w head
Tavg rotation = 1/2 x 1/RPMs x 60 sec/1 min
e.g., 3ms for 10,000 RPM disk
Transfer time (Tavg transfer)
Time to read the bits in the target sector
Tavg transfer = 1/RPM x 1/(avg # sectors/track) x 60 secs/1 min
e.g., 0.006ms for 10,000 RPM disk with 1,000 sectors/track
given 512-byte sectors, ~85 MB/s data transfer rate
26. 26 15-213, F’08
Disk Access Time Example
Given:
Rotational rate = 7,200 RPM
Average seek time = 5 ms
Avg # sectors/track = 1000
Derived average time to access random sector:
Tavg rotation = 1/2 x (60 secs/7200 RPM) x 1000 ms/sec = 4 ms
Tavg transfer = 60/7200 RPM x 1/400 secs/track x 1000 ms/sec =
0.008 ms
Taccess = 5 ms + 4 ms + 0.008 ms = 9.008 ms
Time to second sector: 0.008 ms
Important points:
Access time dominated by seek time and rotational latency
First bit in a sector is the most expensive, the rest are free
SRAM access time is about 4 ns/doubleword, DRAM about 60 ns
~100,000 times longer to access a word on disk than in DRAM
27. 27 15-213, F’08
Disk storage as array of blocks
OS’s view of storage device
(as exposed by SCSI or IDE/ATA protocols)
Common “logical block” size: 512 bytes
Number of blocks: device capacity / block size
Common OS-to-storage requests defined by few fields
R/W, block #, # of blocks, memory source/dest
6
5 7 12 23 …
…
28. 28 15-213, F’08
Page Faults
A page fault is caused by a reference to a VM word that is not in
physical (main) memory
Example: An instruction references a word contained in VP 3, a miss
that triggers a page fault exception
null
null
Memory resident
page table
(DRAM)
Physical memory
(DRAM)
VP 7
VP 4
Virtual memory
(disk)
Valid
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Physical page
number or
disk address
PTE 0
PTE 7
PP 0
VP 2
VP 1
PP 3
VP 1
VP 2
VP 4
VP 6
VP 7
Virtual address
VP 3
From lecture-14.ppt
“logical block” number can be
remembered in page table to
identify disk location for pages
not resident in main memory
29. 29 15-213, F’08
In device, “blocks” mapped to physical store
Disk Sector
(usually same size as block)
32. 32 15-213, F’08
Disk Capacity
Capacity: maximum number of bits that can be stored
Vendors express capacity in units of gigabytes (GB), where
1 GB = 109 Bytes (Lawsuit pending! Claims deceptive advertising)
Capacity is determined by these technology factors:
Recording density (bits/in): number of bits that can be squeezed
into a 1 inch linear segment of a track
Track density (tracks/in): number of tracks that can be squeezed
into a 1 inch radial segment
Areal density (bits/in2): product of recording and track density
33. 33 15-213, F’08
Computing Disk Capacity
Capacity = (# bytes/sector) x (avg. # sectors/track) x
(# tracks/surface) x (# surfaces/platter) x
(# platters/disk)
Example:
512 bytes/sector
1000 sectors/track (on average)
20,000 tracks/surface
2 surfaces/platter
5 platters/disk
Capacity = 512 x 1000 x 80000 x 2 x 5
= 409,600,000,000
= 409.6 GB
34. 34 15-213, F’08
Looking back at the hardware
main
memory
bus interface
ALU
register file
CPU chip
35. 35 15-213, F’08
Connecting I/O devices: the I/O Bus
main
memory
I/O
bridge
bus interface
ALU
register file
CPU chip
system bus memory bus
USB
controller
mousekeyboard
graphics
adapter
monitor
disk
controller
disk
I/O bus Expansion slots for
other devices such
as network adapters
36. 36 15-213, F’08
Reading from disk (1)
main
memory
ALU
register file
CPU chip
disk
controller
graphics
adapter
USB
controller
mousekeyboard monitor
disk
I/O bus
bus interface
CPU initiates a disk read by writing a READ
command, logical block number, number of
blocks, and destination memory address to a
port (address) associated with disk controller
37. 37 15-213, F’08
Reading from disk (2)
main
memory
ALU
register file
CPU chip
disk
controller
graphics
adapter
USB
controller
mousekeyboard monitor
disk
I/O bus
bus interface
Disk controller reads the sectors and
performs a direct memory access (DMA)
transfer into main memory
38. 38 15-213, F’08
Reading from disk (3)
main
memory
ALU
register file
CPU chip
disk
controller
graphics
adapter
USB
controller
mousekeyboard monitor
disk
I/O bus
bus interface
When the DMA transfer completes, the
disk controller notifies the CPU with an
interrupt (i.e., asserts a special “interrupt”
pin on the CPU)