This document provides information about learning disabilities, including definitions, types, causes, diagnosis, and assessment. It defines learning disabilities as disorders that affect the brain's ability to receive, process, store, or communicate information. Common types of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading disability), dyscalculia (mathematics disability), and dysgraphia (writing disability). Learning disabilities are often identified through intelligence and achievement testing which looks for a discrepancy between cognitive ability and academic performance.

1. ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: LEARNING DISABILITY
SUBMITTED BY
NAME : VIPIN CHANDRAN CA
OPTIONAL : ENGLISH
CANDIDATE CODE : 165/13376025

2. INTRODUCTION
Learning disability is a classification including several areas of functioning
in which a
person has difficulty learning in a typical manner, usually caused by an unknown
factor
or factors.
While learning disability, learning disorder and learning difficulty are often
used
interchangeably, they differ in many ways. Learning disability refers to
significant
learning problems in an academic area. These problems, however, are not enough
to
warrant an official diagnosis. Learning disorder, on the other hand, is an
official clinical
diagnosis, whereby the individual meets certain criteria, as determined by a
professional
(psychologist, pediatrician, etc.) The difference is in degree, frequency, and
intensity of
reported symptoms and problems, and thus the two should not be confused. When
the
term "learning disabilities" is used, it describes a group of disorders
characterized by
inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types
of
learning disabilities include reading disability (dyslexia), mathematics
disability
(dyscalculia) and writing disability (dysgraphia). The unknown factor is the
disorder that
affects the brain's ability to receive and process information. This disorder
can make it
problematic for a person to learn as quickly or in the same way as someone who
is not
affected by a learning disability. People with a learning disability have
trouble
performing specific types of skills or completing tasks if left to figure things
out by
themselves or if taught in conventional ways.
Individuals with learning disabilities can face unique challenges that are often
pervasive
throughout the lifespan. Depending on the type and severity of the disability,
interventions and current technologies may be used to help the individual learn
strategies that will foster future success. Some interventions can be quite
simplistic,
while others are intricate and complex. Current technologies may require student
training to be effective classroom supports. Teachers, parents and schools can
create
plans together that tailor intervention and accommodations to aid the individual
in
successfully becoming independent learners. School psychologists and other
qualified
professionals quite often help design the intervention and coordinate the
execution of
the intervention with teachers and parents. Social support may improve the
learning for
students with learning disabilities.
a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the
acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or

3. mathematical
abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be
due to
Central Nervous System Dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur
concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g. sensory impairment,
intellectual
disability, social and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g.
cultural

4. differences, insufficient/inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors) it is
not the direct
result of those conditions or influences.
What Are Learning Disabilities?
Learning disabilities (LDs) are real. They affect the brain's ability to
receive, process,
store, respond to and communicate information. LDs are actually a group of
disorders,
not a single disorder.
Learning disabilities are not the same as intellectual disabilities (formerly
known as
mental retardation), sensory impairments (vision or hearing) or autism spectrum
disorders. People with LD are of average or above-average intelligence but still
struggle
to acquire skills that impact their performance in school, at home, in the
community and
in the workplace. Learning disabilities are lifelong, and the sooner they are
recognized
and identified, the sooner steps can be taken to circumvent or overcome the
challenges
they present.
The hallmark sign of a learning disability is a distinct and unexplained gap
between a
person's level of expected achievement and their performance. Learning
disabilities
affect every person differently and they present differently at various stages
of
development. LDs can range from mild to severe and it is not uncommon for people
to
have more than one learning disability. In addition, about one-third of
individuals with LD
also have Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). While LD and ADHD can
share common features, such as difficulties with concentration, memory, and
organizational skills, they are not the same types of disorder. Unfortunately,
LD is often
confused with ADHD and is frequently mistaken as laziness or associated with
disorders of emotion and behavior. A careful and thorough review of concerns,
with
input from multiple sources (including parents, educators, physicians,
psychologists,
speech-language providers and, of course, the person themselves) is the only way
to
rule in or rule out a learning disability.
Learning disabilities can affect a person’s ability in the areas of
. Listening
. Speaking
. Reading
. Writing
. Spelling
. Reasoning
. Mathematics
See the chart below for specific types of learning disabilities and related
disorders.

5. LD Terminology
Disability Area of difficulty Symptoms include
trouble with Example
Dyslexia
Processing
language
. Reading
. Writing
. Spelling
Confusing letter
names and sounds,
difficulties blending
sounds into words,
slow rate of reading,
trouble remembering
after reading text
Dyscalculia Math skills
. Computation
. Remembering
math facts
. Concepts of time
and money
Difficulty learning to
count by 2s, 3s, 4s,
poor mental math
skills, problems with
spatial directions
Dysgraphia Written expression
. Handwriting
. Spelling
. Composition
Illegible handwriting,
difficulty organizing
ideas for writing
Dyspraxia Fine motor skills
. Coordination
. Manual dexterity
Trouble with
scissors, buttons,
drawing
Information Processing Disorders
Auditory
Processing
Disorder
Interpreting auditory
information
. Language
development
. Reading
Difficulty anticipating
how a speaker will
end a sentence
Visual Processing
Disorder
Interpreting visual
information
. Reading
. Writing
. Math
Difficulty
distinguishing letters
like “h“ and “n“
Other Related Disorders

6. Attention-Deficit/
Hyperactivity Concentration and . Over-activity
. Distractibility
Can't sit still, loses
interest quickly,

7. Disorder (ADHD) focus . Impulsivity daydreams
Causes OF Learning Disabilities
Experts aren“t exactly sure what causes learning disabilities. In fact, there is
often no
apparent cause for LD. LD may be due to
. Heredity. Often learning disabilities run in families. Children with LD are
likely to
have parents or other relatives with similar difficulties.
. Problems during pregnancy and birth. An illness or injury during or before
birth
may cause an LD. Drug and alcohol use during pregnancy, low birth weight, lack
of
oxygen and premature or prolonged labor may also lead to an LD.
. Incidents after birth. Serious illness, head injuries, poor nutrition and
exposure to
toxins such as lead can contribute to LD.
Learning disabilities are not caused by economic disadvantage or cultural
differences,
nor are they the result of lack of educational opportunity. That said, children
who are
denied timely and effective instruction during critical times during their
development are
at high risk for showing signs of LD during the school years and beyond.
Are Learning Disabilities Common?
Today, approximately 2.4 million school-aged children in the U.S. are identified
as
having specific learning disabilities (SLD) and receive some kind of special
education
support.1 These numbers do not include children in private and religious schools
or
those who are home-schooled.
What Can You Do About Learning Disabilities?
Learning disabilities are lifelong challenges. Although they don“t go away, they
should
not stop individuals from achieving their goals. A learning disability is not a
disease,
and there is no single course of treatment or intervention that works for
everyone. The
first step to overcoming the challenges posed by LD is to recognize that a
problem
might exist. Then seek help from qualified professionals, who can provide
guidance
through a personalized evaluation process. Working with a trusted team of
professionals, it is then possible to identify the types of accommodations,
services and
supports that will lead to success.
Learning Disabilities In Children
Early identification“the earlier, the better“is vital in helping a child to
succeed
academically and socially. Careful and honest observation is a key to
understanding
how well a child is progressing in their development of skills in important
areas such as
expressive and receptive language, fine and gross motor coordination, attention
and
socialization. Even preschoolers can show signs of risk for LD. And for some
children,
LD does not present itself until middle school or even high school.

8. If a child is displaying signs of a learning disability? No need to become
panic. Not all children who
are slow to develop skills have LD. Share and should concerns with classroom
teachers and others
who come in contact with your child. And no need to shy away from seeking more
detail information
and assistance. There is no shame in having a learning disability. The shame
knows that there is a
problem and not providing the help a child needs and deserves.
Once a child is found to have a learning disability, learn as much as possible
about the types of
supports that are available through school and in the community. Just as
important, help the child to
understand their specific challenges, assure them that LD is not an
insurmountable hurdle and that
they are not alone: other children struggle, too, and adults are there to help.
Types
Learning disabilities can be categorized either by the type of information
processing that
is affected or by the specific difficulties caused by a processing deficit.
By stage of information processing
Learning disabilities fall into broad categories based on the four stages of
information
processing used in learning: input, integration, storage, and outputInput: This
is the
information perceived through the senses, such as visual and auditory
perception.
Difficulties with visual perception can cause problems with recognizing the
shape,
position and size of items seen. There can be problems with sequencing, which
can
relate to deficits with processing time intervals or temporal perception.
Difficulties with
auditory perception can make it difficult to screen out competing sounds in
order to
focus on one of them, such as the sound of the teacher's voice. Some children
appear
to be unable to process tactile input. For example, they may seem insensitive to
pain or
dislike being touched.
. Integration: This is the stage during which perceived input is interpreted,
categorized, placed in a sequence, or related to previous learning. Students
with
problems in these areas may be unable to tell a story in the correct sequence,
unable to memorize sequences of information such as the days of the week, able
to
understand a new concept but be unable to generalize it to other areas of
learning,
or able to learn facts but be unable to put the facts together to see the "big
picture."
A poor vocabulary may contribute to problems with comprehension.
. Storage: Problems with memory can occur with short-term or working memory, or
with long-term memory. Most memory difficulties occur in the area of short-term
memory, which can make it difficult to learn new material without many more

9. repetitions than is usual. Difficulties with visual memory can impede learning
to
spell.
. Output: Information comes out of the brain either through words, that is,
language
output, or through muscle activity, such as gesturing, writing or drawing.
Difficulties
with language output can create problems with spoken language, for example,
answering a question on demand, in which one must retrieve information from
storage, organize our thoughts, and put the thoughts into words before we speak.
It
can also cause trouble with written language for the same reasons. Difficulties
with
motor abilities can cause problems with gross and fine motor skills. People with
gross motor difficulties may be clumsy, that is, they may be prone to stumbling,
falling, or bumping into things. They may also have trouble running, climbing,
or
learning to ride a bicycle. People with fine motor difficulties may have trouble
buttoning shirts, tying shoelaces, or with handwriting.
By function impaired
Deficits in any area of information processing can manifest in a variety of
specific
learning disabilities. It is possible for an individual to have more than one of
these
difficulties. This is referred to as co morbidity or co-occurrence of learning
disabilities In
the UK, the term dual diagnosis is often used to refer to co-occurrence of
learning
difficulties.
Reading disorder
The most common learning disability Of all students with specific learning
disabilities,
70%-80% have deficits in reading. The term "Developmental Dyslexia" is often
used as
a synonym for reading disability; however, many researchers assert that there
are
different types of reading disabilities, of which dyslexia is one. A reading
disability can
affect any part of the reading process, including difficulty with accurate or
fluent word
recognition, or both, word decoding, reading rate, prosody (oral reading with
expression), and reading comprehension. Before the term "dyslexia" came to
prominence, this learning disability used to be known as "word blindness."
Common indicators of reading disability include difficulty with phonemic
awareness—the
ability to break up words into their component sounds, and difficulty with
matching letter
combinations to specific sounds (sound-symbol correspondence)...
Disorder of Written Expression
Speech and language disorders can also be called Dysphasia/Aphasia The DSM-IV-TR
criteria for a Disorder of Written Expression is writing skills (as measured by
standardized test or functional assessment) that fall substantially below those
expected
based on the individual's chronological age, measured intelligence, and age
appropriate

10. education, (Criterion A). This difficulty must also cause significant impairment
to
academic achievement and tasks that require composition of written text
(Criterion B),
and if a sensory deficit is present, the difficulties with writing skills must
exceed those
typically associated with the sensory deficit, (Criterion C)
Individuals with a diagnosis of a Disorder of Written Expression typically have
a
combination of difficulties in their abilities with written expression as
evidenced by
grammatical and punctuation errors within sentences, poor paragraph
organization,
multiple spelling errors, and excessively poor handwriting. A disorder in
spelling or
handwriting without other difficulties of written expression do not generally
qualify for
this diagnosis. If poor handwriting is due to an impairment in motor
coordination, a
diagnosis of Developmental coordination disorder should be considered.
By a number of organizations, the term "dysgraphia" has been used as an
overarching
term for all disorders of written expression.
Math disability
Sometimes called dyscalculia, a math disability involves such difficulties as
learning
math concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time), difficulty memorizing
math
facts, difficulty organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are
organized on
the page. Dyscalculics are often referred to as having poor "number sense".[10]
Diagnosis
IQ-Achievement Discrepancy
Learning disabilities are often identified by psychiatrists, school
psychologists, clinical
psychologists, counseling psychologists and neuropsychologists through a
combination
of intelligence testing, academic achievement testing, classroom performance,
and
social interaction and aptitude. Other areas of assessment may include
perception,
cognition, memory, attention, and language abilities. The resulting information
is used to
determine whether a child's academic performance is commensurate with his or her
cognitive ability. If a child's cognitive ability is much higher than his or her
academic
performance, the student is often diagnosed with a learning disability. The DSM-IV
and
many school systems and government programs diagnose learning disabilities in
this
way (DSM-IV uses the term "disorder" rather than "disability".)
Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years,
there has been substantial criticism of this approach among researchers. Recent
research has provided little evidence that a discrepancy between formally

11. measured IQ
and achievement is a clear indicator of LD. Furthermore, diagnosing on the basis
of a
discrepancy does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic
achievers

12. who do not have a discrepancy with IQ (i.e. their IQ scores are also low) appear
to
benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who do have a
discrepancy with IQ (i.e. their IQ scores are higher than their academic
performance
would suggest).
Assessment
Many normed assessments can be used in evaluating skills in the primary academic
domains: reading, including word recognition, fluency, and comprehension;
mathematics, including computation and problem solving; and written expression,
including handwriting, spelling and composition.
The most commonly used comprehensive achievement tests include the Woodcock-
Johnson III (WJ III), Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II (WIAT II), the
Wide Range
Achievement Test III (WRAT III), and the Stanford Achievement Test—10th edition.
These tests include measures of many academic domains that are reliable in
identifying
areas of difficulty.[14]
In the reading domain, there are also specialized tests that can be used to
obtain details
about specific reading deficits. Assessments that measure multiple domains of
reading
include Gray's Diagnostic Reading Tests—2nd edition (GDRT II) and the Stanford
Diagnostic Reading Assessment. Assessments that measure reading subskills
include
the Gray Oral Reading Test IV — Fourth Edition (GORT IV), Gray Silent Reading
Test,
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP), Tests of Oral Reading and
Comprehension Skills (TORCS), Test of Reading Comprehension 3 (TORC-3), Test of
Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE), and the Test of Reading Fluency. A more
comprehensive list of reading assessments may be obtained from the Southwest
Educational Development Laboratory.[17]
The purpose of assessment is to determine what is needed for intervention, which
also
requires consideration of contextual variables and whether there are comorbid
disorders
that must also be identified and treated, such as behavioural issues or language
delays.[14]
Management
Interventions include:
. Mastery model:
. Learners work at their own level of mastery.
. Practice
. Gain fundamental skills before moving onto the next level

13. Note: this approach is most likely to be used with adult learners or outside
the mainstream school system.
. Direct Instruction:
. Highly structured, intensive instruction
. Emphasizes carefully planned lessons for small learning increments
. Scripted lesson plans
. Rapid-paced interaction between teacher and students
. Correcting mistakes immediately
. Achievement-based grouping
. Frequent progress assessments
. Classroom adjustments:
. Special seating assignments
. Alternative or modified assignments
. Modified testing procedures
. Quiet environment
. Special equipment:
. Word processors with spell checkers and dictionaries
. Text-to-speech and speech-to-text programs
. Talking calculators
. Books on tape
. Computer-based activities
. Classroom assistants:
. Note-takers
. Readers
. Proofreaders
. Scribes
. Special Education:
. Prescribed hours in a resource room
. Placement in a resource room[
. Enrollment in a special school for learning disabled students
. Individual Education Plan (IEP)
Causes
The causes for learning disabilities are not well understood, and sometimes
there is no
apparent cause for a learning disability. However, some causes of neurological
impairments include:
. Heredity – Learning disabilities often run in the family. Children with
learning
disabilities are likely to have parents or other relatives with similar
difficulties.[22]

14. . Problems during pregnancy and birth – Learning disabilities can result from
anomalies in the developing brain, illness or injury, fetal exposure to alcohol
or
drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation, or by premature or prolonged labor.
. Accidents after birth – Learning disabilities can also be caused by head
injuries,
malnutrition, or by toxic exposure (such as heavy metals or pesticides).

15. References
1.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, Dec 1973; vol. 6: pp. 609 – 614
2. "What are Learning Disabilities?". The National Center for Learning
Disabilities. 4
March 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
3.
"Helping Children with Learning Difficulty". Apparent Lifestyle.
4. Rourke, B. P. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the
model. New York: Guilford Press.
5.
Shifrer, Dara, Rebecca Callahan, and Chandra Muller. 2013. "Equity or
Marginalization? The High School Course-Taking of Students Labeled With a
Learning Disability." American Educational Research Journal 50(4):656-82.
6.
Shifrer, Dara. 2013. –Stigma of a Label: Educational Expectations for High
School Students Labeled with a Learning Disability.– Journal of Health and
Social Behavior 54(4):462-480.