This document discusses different aspects of learning. It defines learning as the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes through purposeful experiences that produce changes in behavior. It notes that learning is a process, not a product, and involves perceiving, conceptualizing, associating, appreciating, and developing attitudes. The document also outlines several theories of learning, including trial-and-error, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning, and observational learning. It discusses key concepts like reinforcement, punishment, and insight that help explain how learning occurs.

2. INTRODUCTION
• Individual starts learning immediate after his birth or
in a strict sense even earlier in the womb of the
mother.
• Learning is the purposeful and goal directed process
• Universal, distinctive and essential ability that
human possess

3. DEFINITION
Learning is the acquisition of habits,
knowledge and attitudes. It involves new
ways of doing things and it operates on an
individual’s attempts to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It
represents progressive changes in
behaviour. It enables him to satisfy
interest to attain a goal (Crow and Crow)

4. NATURE OF LEARNING
 A process and not a product
 Involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual’s
which helps him to produce change in his behaviour
 Prepares an individual for the necessary adjustment and
adaptation
 All learning is purposeful and goal-oriented
 Comprehensive process which covers nearly all the domains

5. Universal and continuous.
Learning does not include the changes in
behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue,
illness or drugs, etc
Transferable from situation to another situation
Helps in the proper growth and development
Helps in the balanced development of personality

6. LEARNING PROCESS
Perception
Learning
Conceptual
Learning
Association
Learning
Appreciation
Learning
Attitudinal
Learning

7. Perception Learning
 Attaching of meaning to sensation is
called perception
 Sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch
are considered as the five gateways of
knowledge
 All knowledge is based on sense
perception
 Perception is the foundation of all
forms of learning
 Perceptual learning is confined to the
presentation of the concrete object
Conceptual Learning
 Learning implies that the
individual starts thinking
in abstract terms.
 Understands about the
objects without its
concrete form.
 These abstract concepts
gradually multiply and
become a part of mental
make-up.

8. Association Learning
 Individual has some mental pictures
of his previous observations
 Tries to link up his new
associations with his previous
mental pictures
 Uses memory and recalls his
previous observation. Thus, he
comes to accept new mental
pictures
Appreciation Learning
 Process of acquiring ideas,
attitudes, satisfaction and
judgement concerning values as
well as the recognition of worth
and importance which learners
gain from activities.
 It is a product of appreciation.
“When you appreciate you
imitate”

9. Attitudinal Learning
 Attitude is a settle way of thinking
and feeling about something
 Individual has a firm grasp over the
knowledge acquired and develops
certain attitudes of mind.
 Attitudes are confirmed as the
individual acquires more and more
knowledge

10. PURPOSE OF LEARNING
1. Acquiring knowledge: Includes aspects such as perception,
conception and associate learning.
2. Acquiring skills: Includes aspects such as writing, reading,
conception, art, drawing, handwork, musical performance,
very fluency and other activity involving sensory-motor
process
3. Acquiring attitudes and ideals: Includes behaviours falling
under sphere of affective domain

12. Learner’s physical health
Length of the
working period
Motivation Goals of life
Learner’s
Mental Health
Basic potential of the
learner
Age, sex , maturation

14. According to Throndike, there are 3 major laws
1. Law of readiness:
-Implies the degree of preparedness and eagerness to learn
2. Law of effects:
-Implies the activities which are accompanied by a feeling of
pleasure or satisfaction are more readily and effectively
learnt than activities which are unpleasant or annoying
3. Law of exercise/use:
-things that are most often repeated are best remembered.
-has two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse

15. 4. Law of disuse:
-any learning process which is not practice for sometime
gradually decays.
5. Law of frequency:
-The more often two things or events are linked, the more
the association
6. Law of recency:
-things that are most recently learned are obtained best
remembered.

16. 7. Law of primacy:
-learning should be done correctly for the first time since it
is difficult to “unlearn” or change an incorrectly learned
material.
8. Law of purpose:
-With a clear and definite goal mind, it is easy to works
towards a definite purpose.
9. Law of association:
-One idea gives way to the other and so on.
-3 basic laws of association are: law of continuity, law of
similarity, law of contrast.

17. THEORIES OF LEARNING
Trial and Error
Theory of Learning
Theory by Classical
Conditioning or
respondent learning
Theory of Operant
Conditioning or
Instrumental
Conditioning
Theory of Insightful
Learning
Cognitive Theory of
Learning

19. • Propagated by Edward lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
• Learning consists of making bonds or connections
between stimuli and responses
• Learning is the stamping in of the correct responses
and stamping out of the incorrect responses through
trial and error

20. TRIAL AND ERROR THEORY

21. ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN THE
PROCESS OF LEARNING
1. Drive
2. Goal
3. Barrier or blocks which prevent the individual reaching the goal
4. Random attempts to overcome the barriers
5. Chance success
6. Selection of correct response
7. Fixation of the correct response in the neuromuscular system of
the individual

23. Proposed by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Organism learns to associate new stimuli with natural,
biological responses such as salivation or fear.
Stimulus triggers the response of an organism
Classical conditioning is that learning that occurs when
a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus
that naturally produces a behavior.
After the association is learned, the previously neutral
stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior

25. • Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something (such as food)
that triggers a natural occurring response, and the
unconditioned response (UR) is the naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) that follows the
unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that, after
being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned
stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned
stimulus.

26. • Acquisition: CS and the US are repeatedly paired
together and behavior increases.
• Extinction: CS is repeatedly presented alone, and
the behavior slowly decreases.
• Spontaneous recovery: After a pause, when the CS
is again presented alone, the behavior may again
occur and then again show extinction.

27. Clinical pictures example
• Classical conditioning has also been used to help explain the
experience of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• PTSD is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to a
fearful event, such as the threat of death (American Psychiatric
Association, 1994).
• PTSD occurs when the individual develops a strong association
between the situational factors that surrounded the traumatic event
(e.g., military uniforms or the sounds or smells of war) and the US
(the fearful trauma itself).

28. • As a result of the conditioning, being exposed to, or even thinking
about the situation in which the trauma occurred (the CS),
becomes sufficient to produce the CR of severe anxiety (Keane,
Zimering, & Caddell, 1985).
• PTSD develops because the emotions experienced during the
event have produced neural activity in the amygdala and created
strong conditioned learning.
• In addition to the strong conditioning that people with PTSD
experience, they also show slower extinction in classical
conditioning tasks (Milad et al., 2009).
• In short, people with PTSD have developed very strong
associations with the events surrounding the trauma and are also
slow to show extinction to the conditioned stimulus.

30.  Proposed by BF Skinner (1904-1990)
 Operant conditioning is learning that occurs based on the
consequences of behavior, behaviour is shaped and
maintained by its consequences
 If consequences favourable, the individual repeat the same
behaviour.
 If consequences unfavourable, reduce the chances of the
behaviour from recurring again

31. THEORY OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

32. How Positive and Negative Reinforcement and
Punishment Influence Behavior
Operant
conditioning
term
Description Outcome Example
Positive
reinforcement
Add or increase a
pleasant stimulus
Behavior is
strengthened
Giving a student a prize after
he gets an A on a test
Negative
reinforcement
Reduce or remove an
unpleasant stimulus
Behavior is
strengthened
Taking painkillers that
eliminate pain increases the
likelihood that you will take
painkillers again
Positive
punishment
Present or add an
unpleasant stimulus
Behavior is
weakened
Giving a student extra
homework after she
misbehaves in class
Negative
punishment
Reduce or remove a
pleasant stimulus
Behavior is
weakened
Taking away a teen‘s computer
after he misses curfew

34.  Founded in Germany in 1912 by Max Wertheimer and
his colleagues
 Implies sudden understanding of a solution to a problem.
 Involves mental exploration and understanding of what is
being learned.
 Learner perceives characteristics of the situation by using
his intelligence.
 Uses past learning and ability to generalise from one
situation to another.

37.  Founded by Psychologist Albert Bandura and
colleagues (1997)
 Albert Bandura stated that major part of human
learning consists of observational learning.
 Useful for animals and for people because it allows to
learn without having to actually engage in what might be
a risky behavior

38. Observational learning takes place in four
steps (Bandura)
 Paying attention and perceiving the most critical features o
another person’s behaviour
 Remembering the behaviour
 Reproducing the action
 Being motivated to learn and carry out the behaviour.

39. Example:
Monkeys that see other monkeys respond
with fear to the sight of a snake learn to fear
the snake themselves, even if they have been
raised in a laboratory and have never actually
seen a snake (Cook & Mineka, 1990)

41. Assessing the patient’s characteristics
Selecting appropriate teaching method
Rewarding positive behaviour
Encouraging active participation
Repeating key facts and concepts
Encouraging immediate practice
While teaching, all new knowledge should be
introduced slowly
Explanation should be simple, specific and clear
 Teaching should suit patient’s need and interest