The document discusses various theories and models of leadership. It begins by defining leadership as the ability to influence others to achieve goals. It then covers several historical theories including: trait theories, which focus on innate qualities; behavioral theories from Ohio State and University of Michigan, which emphasize behaviors like consideration and task focus; and contingency theories like Fiedler's, which note leadership effectiveness depends on situational factors. Later sections discuss path-goal theory, situational leadership, participative models, and new approaches like leader-member exchange theory and strategic/visionary theories involving charismatic and transformational leadership.

1. What is Leadership?
• The ability to influence, motivate, and
enable others to contribute to the
effectiveness and success of the
organizations of which they are members.
» Robert House (2004)
• The ability to influence a group toward the
achievement of a vision or set of goals.
» Robbins & Judge (2008)

2. Leadership Models
• Model One: Authoritarian vs Democratic
or laissez-faire
• Model Two: Task vs People Oriented

3. Styles of leadership

4. Styles of leadership
concern for production 
concern for
people
Laissez-faire
Leader
(L)
Benevolent
Leader
(Y)
Autocratic
Leader
(X)
Team
Leader
(Z)
9
9
1

5. What are the best qualities of a leader
Strong, Decisive and Knowledgeable ?
OR
Quiet, Supportive, Cooperative ?
(Is it Problem Situation & Context based ?)
Leaders should have 2 main concerns: People and Production (Task)
High concern for people motivates the team and they become more
productive,
High concern for production creates sense of achievement and
satisfaction

6. What’s your Leadership style ?

7. The Commander
Commanders make and influence
most decisions.
The downside of this leadership style
is that the leader can demotivate and
annoy people.
Often decisions are not optimal - they don’t consider all available
information, options and perspectives. This style is effective in short-
term, in long-term it could be dangerous for people and projects.

8. The Coach
The coach is needed when team
lacks focus, expertise and
understanding what should be
done and how.
Coaches tend to be concerned with growing people,
creating and enabling a trusting environment.
This leader makes decisions collectively with a team while
explaining rationale behind decisions. They listen and
provides feedback.
Coaches encourages personal growth and looks to build long-
term capabilities in an effort to prepare the team and
individuals for independent work.

9. The Supporter
Supporters are needed to
help teams.
They help remove barriers
and coordinate activities.
The Supporter is an ego-less, quiet leader and facilitator.
They tend to make joint decisions with the team as equals,
delegating majority of decisions to the team.
In addition, the Supporter is concerned with the creation of
harmony and balance between team members.

10. The Self
Organizing Team
A motivated, confident & capable
Team doesn’t need formal leaders.
The team makes most decisions.
Any member could step in and
become leader in specific areas
and situations. People on these
teams tend to be highly capable, committed and self-driven.
Teams will transcend through previous steps and become truly
self-organized after experiencing victories and failures, growing
and gaining experience together.

11. Which style of leader do you need to be?

12. LEADERSHIP
THEORIES
Trait
Theories
Behavioral
Theories
•Ohio State Studies
•Uni. Of Michigan State
Contingency
Theories
•Fiedler Model
•Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Theory
Path Goal Theory
New Theories
•Leader Exchange Theory
•Vroom and Yetton’s
Leader Participation Model
It is personality &
set of
characteristics
Imply that leaders
can be trained –
focus on the way of
doing things
More flexible –
different leadership
styles, depending
on circumstances
Uses different
variables to explain
leadership

13. Traditional Theories of Leadership
• “Great Man” Theories
– Based on the idea that, Leaders are Born
– Life of respected leader examined for clues
leading to his/her greatness
– Often focused on a galvanizing experience or
admirable trait
– Tend to be of little value from the perspective
of I-O psychology

14. Trait Approach
• Prevalent in 1920s & 1930s
• Attempted to show that leaders possess
certain characteristics that non-leaders do not
• No consistent relationships between traits &
leader effectiveness were found

15. Trait Theory of Leadership
Concept that certain traits help make people effective leaders. Early
research suggested that the traits fell into three categories:
Physical
Characteristics
Personality
Characteristics
Abilities
Some Criticism

16. Traits Associated with Leadership
Energy Insightfulness
Appearance Integrity
Intelligence Persistence
Judgment Self-confidence
Verbal fluency Sense of humor
Achievement drive Tolerance for stress
Adaptability Interpersonal skills
Aggressiveness Prestige
Enthusiasm
Extroversion Tact
Initiative

17. Six Core Traits of Leadership
Drive
Leadership
Motivation
Integrity
Self-
Confidence
Cognitive
Ability
Knowledge
of the
Domain

18. Major Conclusions of Trait Theories
• First major study searched for traits that differentiated leaders from followers.
• Researched focused heavily on personality characteristics.
• Stogdill/Mann identified five important traits found more in leaders than
followers.
• Intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability.
Intelligence most important.
• Leadership skills can be developed and nurtured.
• Organizations need to spend time and resources in training leaders to acquire
certain desirable traits.

19. “Power” Approach
• Examines types of power wielded by
leaders
• Reward power
• Coercive power
• Legitimate power
• Referent power
• Expert power
• Very practical in orientation

20. Guidelines on Building
and Using Power

21. Skills approach to Leadership
• Robert Katz’s research surfaced a
set of skills for leadership success.
• Skill 1-“Technical skills”
involving hands-on activity.
• Skill 2 -“Human skills” which is
the ability to work with people.
– -Greatest asset to have.
• Skill 3 -“Conceptual skills” having
ability to work with ideas and
concepts.

22. Behavioral Theories of Leadership
• Theories proposing that specific behaviors
differentiate leaders from non-leaders
• Differences between theories of leadership:
– Trait theory: leadership is inherent, so we must
identify the leader based on his or her traits
– Behavioral theory: leadership is a skill set and can
be taught to anyone, so we must identify the proper
behaviors to teach potential leaders

23. Important Behavioral Studies
• Initiating structure
• Consideration
Ohio
• Employee-oriented
• Production-oriented
Michigan

24. 24
Behavioral Approach
Ohio State University studies
• Behavioral approach
• Focused on kinds of behavior engaged in by people
in leadership roles
• 2 major types of behavior
• Consideration
• Initiating structure
– Represented a leap forward

25. Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely to
define and structure his or her role and
those of sub-ordinates in the search for
goal attainment.
Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to
have job relationships characterized by
mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s
ideas, and regard for their feelings.
They found two critical characteristics either of which could be high
or low and were independent of one another.

26. Behavioral Theory – Ohio State
• Ohio State Studies
also revealed two
leadership forms.
– Used questionnaire
to assess employee
perceptions of
leaders.
– Consideration
behavior (concern for
feelings).
– Initiating structure
(defining roles).

27. Ohio State Studies

28. 28
Behavioral Approach
University of Michigan studies
• Focused more on dynamics of how leaders
& groups interacted
• Task-oriented behavior
– Similar to initiating structure
• Relations-oriented behavior
– Similar to consideration
• Participative behavior
• Represented another step forward in
leadership research

29. Behavioral Theory – Univ. of Michigan Studies
• The 1940s saw that
leadership effectiveness was
dependent upon leader
behavior.
• Rensis Likert’s Michigan
Studies surfaced two forms of
leader behavior—job-
centered (production) and
employee-centered.
• -Attempt made to balance
task and relationship
emphasis.
University of Michigan Studies
Identified 2 Leadership Behaviors
Employee-Centered ProductionCentered
Leaders interested in
their subordinates as
people, encourage
worker participation
in the organizational
goal-setting process.
Leaders emphasized
technical aspects of
job, set job
standards, close
supervision of
subordinates.

30. Behavioral Theory –
Managerial / Leadership Grid
• Managerial/Leadership Grid
developed by Blake & Mouton
– Two dimensions similar to
Michigan/Ohio State Studies
– Concern for subordinates and
concern for production/results
– 9.9 is the ideal team approach on
grid-balance of task and
relationship
– This research influenced modern
contingency approaches of
today.

32. 32
Contingency Approach
• Proposed to take into account the role of the
situation in the exercise of leadership
• Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory
– Proposed leadership depended in part on
maturity of subordinate
• Job maturity
• Psychological maturity

33. Major components of Contingency Theory
• Contingency theory
identifies:
– Key situational factors,
– Specifies how they
interact, and
– Determines best
leadership approach.
– This is called
situational leadership.

34. Contingency Theories continued
• Situational leadership is built
upon the contingency theory,
and refined by Ken
Blanchard in the 1980s.
• Leadership is composed of
both a directive and
supportive dimension.
• Coaching and delegating
were added to provide four
styles.

35. Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Theory Path-Goal Theory

36. Fiedler’s Contingency
Theory of Leadership
• Effectiveness depends on leader’s
behavioral style and the situation
• Leader style measured by the LPC (least preferred co-
worker) scale
• Situational favorableness assessed by three things:
Fred Fiedler
Leader-member
relations
Task structure Position power

37. Fiedler’s LPC Scale
• Esteem for Least Preferred Co-Worker
Cooperative Uncooperative
___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Friendly Unfriendly
___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
• Low LPC Score
• Negative adjectives
• Task-oriented leader (task achievement needs first)
• High LPC Score
• More positive adjectives
• Relationship-oriented leader (interpersonal
relationship needs first)

38. Situational Characteristics
• Leader-Member Relations
– The degree to which a leader is respected, accepted, and had
friendly interpersonal relationships with followers
• Task Structure
– The degree to which tasks are broken down into easily
understood steps or parts
• Position Power
– The degree to which a leader can reward, punish, promote, or
demote individuals in the unit or organization

39. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of
Leadership Effectiveness
Adapted from Exhibit 8-3: Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness

40. Path-Goal Theory
Path-Goal Theory
A leadership theory that
states that leaders can
increase subordinate
satisfaction and
performance by clarifying
and clearing the paths to
goals and by increasing the
number and kinds of
rewards available for goal
attainment.

41. Path-Goal Leadership Theory
Leadership
Style
Contingency
Factors
Outcomes
Martin Evans Robert House

42. Basic Assumptions of Path-Goal Theory
Clarify paths to goals
Clear paths to goals by solving problems
and removing roadblocks
Increase the number and kinds of rewards
available for goal attainment
Do things that satisfy followers today or will
lead to future rewards or satisfaction
Offer followers something unique and valuable
beyond what they’re experiencing

43. Adapting Leader Behavior:
Path-Goal Theory
Leadership
Styles
Subordinate
and
Environmental
Contingencies
Outcomes

44. • Directive Leadership
• Supportive Leadership
• Achievement-Oriented
Leadership
• Participative Leadership
Path-Goal Leadership Theory
Leader Behaviors
• Subordinate
Characteristics
• Work Environment
Characteristics
Situational Factors
Effectiveness of
leader behavior
depends on
these situational
factors

45. Leadership Styles
• Directive
– clarifying expectations and guidelines
• Supportive
– being friendly and approachable
• Participative
– allowing input on decisions
• Achievement-Oriented
– setting challenging goals

46. Subordinate and
Environmental Contingencies
 Perceived ability
 Locus of control
 Experience
Subordinate Environmental
 Task structure
 Formal authority
system
 Primary work group

47. Path Goal Theory:
When to Use Leadership Styles
Directive Leadership Supportive Leadership
 Unstructured tasks
 Inexperienced workers
 Workers with low perceived ability
 Workers with external locus of
control
 Unclear formal authority system
 Structured, simple, repetitive
tasks
 Stressful, frustrating tasks
 When workers lack confidence
 Clear formal authority system
Participative Leadership Achievement-Oriented
Leadership
 Experienced workers
 Workers with high perceived ability
 Workers with internal locus of
control
 Workers not satisfied with rewards
 Complex tasks
 Unchallenging tasks

49. Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.
Leader: decreasing need
for support and supervision
Follower readiness:
ability and willingness
Unable and
Unwilling
Unable but
Willing
Able and
Willing
Directive High Task and Relationship
Orientations
Supportive
Participative
Able and
Unwilling
Monitoring

50. Vroom and Yetton’s
Leader-Participation Model
• How a leader makes decisions is as important as what is decided
• Premise: Situational variables interact with leadership attributes
to impact the behavior of the leader.
– Leader behaviors must adjust to the way tasks are structured
in the organization.
– This is a normative model that tells leaders how participative
to be in their decision making of a decision tree
• Five leadership styles
• Twelve contingency variables

51. 51
Consequences of Participation:
Vroom-Yetton Model
• Decision rules regarding participation
– Assumes that one of most important
duties of leader is to make decisions
– Suggests way to choose a decision-
making strategy
– Implication that group decision-making is
not always appropriate

52. Guidelines for
Participative Leadership

53. Participative Leadership

54. New Approaches to Leadership
• Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory
– Leaders adopt different behaviors with
individual subordinates
– In-group members vs. out-group members
– Recent revisions describe “life-cycle” of a
leader-follower relationship

55. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
In Groups
• Members are
similar to leader
• In the leader’s
inner circle of
communication
• Receives more
time and attention
from leader
• Gives greater
responsibility and
rewards
Out Groups
• Managed by formal
rules and policies
• Receive less of the
leader’s attention /
fewer exchanges
• More likely to
retaliate against the
organization

56. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group
status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job
satisfaction.

57. Strategic Leadership
How visionary leadership
(i.e., charismatic and transformational leadership)
helps leaders achieve strategic leadership...

58. Boal and Hooijberg’s Model of
Strategic Leadership

59. Strategic Leadership - Video

60. Strategic Leadership - Video

61. Visionary Leadership
Charismatic
Leadership
Transformational
Leadership

62. The Charismatic Leader
• Charisma
– Personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes
followers and compels them to identify with
and attempt to emulate the leader

63. Charismatic Leader
• Followers are emotionally
attached to leader, never
question leader’s beliefs or
actions, & see themselves as
integral to accomplishment
of leader’s goal
• Acquire some power from
situation
• Charismatic style may work
to keep followers weak

64. Charismatic Leadership
• Creates an exceptionally strong relationship
between leader and follower
• Charismatic leaders:
– articulate a clear vision based on values
– model values consistent with vision
– communicate high performance expectations
– display confidence in followers’ abilities

65. Charismatic Leadership Theory
• Approach with many different versions of the
notion that charisma is related to leadership;
(1) in a crisis situation, followers perceive
charismatic characteristics in an individual and
accept that person as a leader;
(2) certain leader behaviors (use of innovative
strategies) contribute to a charismatic aura

66. Kinds of Charismatic Leaders
• Ethical Charismatics
– provide developmental opportunities
– are open to positive and negative feedback
– recognize others’ contributions
– share information
– show concern for the interests of the group
• Unethical Charismatics
– control and manipulate followers
– do what is best for themselves
– only want positive feedback
– motivated by self-interest

67. Transformational
Leadership
• Generates awareness and
acceptance of group’s
purpose and mission
• Gets followers to
accomplish more than they
intended or thought
possible

68. Components of
Transformational Leadership
1. Charisma or idealized influence
2. Inspirational motivation
3. Intellectual stimulation
4. Individualized consideration

69. 69
Transformational Leadership (Burns)
• Behavior of inspirational political leaders who
transform followers by appealing to nobler
motives (MLK Jr. & Gandhi)
• 4 general strategies
– Inspirational motivation
– Idealized influence
– Intellectual stimulation
– Individualized consideration

70. 70
Transformational Leadership (Bass)
• Bass perceived transformational
leadership as building upon
transactional leadership in a hierarchy
reflecting effectiveness
– “Full-range” theory of leadership

71. Difference Between Transactional and
Transformational Leadership
• Two emerging leadership
perspectives:
– Transactional which focuses
on leader and follower
relationships.
– Transformational (called
charismatic) focuses on
creating vision, purpose, or
mission.

72. Difference Between Transactional and
Transformational
• Transactional leadership
places emphasis on
managerial theories
(Social-Exchange)
– Keys are role of leader,
group, and performance.
– Reward and punishment
system.
– Build healthy
relationships.

73. Difference Between Transactional and
Transformational Leadership
• Transformational
leadership motivates
followers to:
– -do more than is expected.
– -see raised value in tasks.
– -put group’s common
cause in front of
individual needs.

74. Hierarchy of Transformational
Leadership
Figure 12.3
Hierarchical Nature of
Transformational Leadership
Source: Based on Bass (1997).

75. Transformational Leadership:
Guidelines

76. Servant Leadership

77. Authentic Leaders
• Authentic leaders know who they are, what they believe
in and value, and act upon those values and beliefs.
Ethics and Leadership
• Leadership is not free from values. When we assess
leadership, we must assess not just the goals themselves
but also the means by which those goals are achieved.
Authentic Leaders, Ethics & Leadership

78. Trust and Leadership
• Trust – a psychological state that exists when you
agree to make yourself vulnerable to another
because you have a positive expectation for how
things are going to turn out.
– Key attribute associated with leadership
– Followers who trust their leader will align their actions
and attitudes with the leader’s behaviors/requests
Trust Desired
Actions
Desired
Attitudes

79. How is Trust Developed?
Leadership
Action:
Integrity,
Benevolence,
Ability
Trust
Action: Risk
Taking, Information
Sharing, Group
Effectiveness, and
Productivity

80. Mentoring – Leading for the Future
• Mentor: A senior employee who supports a less experienced
employee.
Career Functions
Helping the protégé gain skills
and abilities
Lobbying for the protégé to get
better assignments
Providing exposure to influential
individuals in the organization
Acting as a sounding board for
ideas
Psychological
Functions
Counseling the protégé to bolster
his/her confidence
Sharing personal experiences with
the protégé
Providing friendship and
acceptance
Acting as a role model

81. Emerging Topics & Challenges in
Leadership Research
• Leadership in a changing workplace
– Teams/groups
– Telecommuting
– Temporary workers
– Fuzzy boundaries of jobs

82. Male & Female Leaders:
Are They Different?
• Considerable disagreement among researchers
• Women tend to prefer democratic & participative
styles; men favor autocratic styles
• Men tend to be more assertive; women more
extraverted
• Women substantially more tender-minded
Ryan McVay/Getty Images

83. Male & Female Leaders (cont’d)
• Effect of male- or female-dominated
industries on leadership styles
– Women in male-dominated industries
– Men in female-dominated industries
• More research is necessary on gender
& leadership

84. Business Case for Gender Balanced Leadership

85. Closing the Gender Gap in Leadership

86. Personality & Leadership
• 1 or more Big Five factors appear directly
or indirectly in all leadership theories
• Big 5 factors emphasize “bright side” of
leadership: Effectiveness
• Predictors for leader failure more likely to
be found in measures of psychopathology

87. Personality & Leadership (cont’d)
• Meta-analysis on relationship between personality
& leader effectiveness in 3 settings
– Characteristics positively associated with leader
effectiveness in 3 different environments:
Industry Government/Military Student
Emotional stability Emotional stability Emotional stability
Extraversion Extraversion Extraversion
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness

88. Cross-Cultural Leadership Studies
• Global leadership & organizational
behavior effectiveness (GLOBE)
– Large-scale cross-cultural study of
leadership by 170 social scientists &
management researchers in over 60
countries

89. Culture & Leadership – New Mantra

90. Universal and Culture-Specific
Aspects of Leadership

91. Examples of Cultural Dimensions
Related to Leadership

92. Cultural Intelligence

93. Leadership in a Diverse Environment
• Workplace is becoming less white, less
native born, less male, & less young
– Implications for leader behavior
• Appears that transformational & charismatic
leadership are universally valued
– Lead to positive performance results & positive
attitude reactions

94. Diversity & its Importance in Leadership

95. Leadership & Strengthening
a Diverse Team