This chapter discusses various theories of leadership. It covers trait theories, which examine personal characteristics of leaders, and behavioral theories, which focus on leaders' behaviors and consideration of followers. Situational theories like Fiedler's contingency model and path-goal theory propose that leadership effectiveness depends on situational factors. Transformational leadership aims to inspire and intellectually stimulate followers. Servant leadership emphasizes service to others, while superleadership develops followers' self-management skills. The chapter also examines leader-member exchange theory and substitutes for leadership.

1. Leadership
Chapter Fourteen

2. In-class exercise
 When you hear the word leader, who comes
to mind?
 When asked why, what verb dominates your
explanation? For example, this leader
 Accomplished ___
 Was able to ____
 Did ___
 Etc.

3. Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership
•Trait Theory
•Behavioral Styles Theory
Situational Theories
•Fiedler’s Contingency Model
•Path-Goal Theory
•Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Chapter Fourteen Outline

4. From Transactional to Charismatic Leadership
•How Does Charismatic Leadership Transform Followers?
•Research and Managerial Implications
Additional Perspectives on Leadership
•The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership
•Substitutes for Leadership
•Servant-Leadership
•Superleadership
Chapter Fourteen Outline (continued)

5. • Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers
vary by
- intelligence
- dominance
- self-confidence
- level of energy and activity
- task-relevant knowledge
• Contemporary findings show that
- leadership prototype: people tend to perceive that someone is
a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with
intelligence, masculinity, and dominance
- leadership prototypes culturally based
- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and
competent
Leadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that
differentiate leaders from followers.
Trait Theory

6. • Gender and leadership
- men and women were seen as displaying more task and
social leadership, respectively
- women used a more democratic or participative style
than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive
style than women
- men and women were equally assertive
- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers
and direct reports, scored higher than their male
counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria
Trait Theory (continued)

7. • Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader
behavior.
1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with
followers
2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group
members should be doing
• University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership
styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies
- one style was employee centered and the other was job
centered
• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four
leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and
concern for people
• Research shows that there is not one best style of
leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style
depends on the situation at hand.
Behavioral Styles Theory

8. Situational
Control
High Control
Situations
Moderate
Control Situations
Low Control
Situations
Leader-member
relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Good Good Good
High High Low
Strong Weak Strong
Good Poor Poor
Low High High
Weak Strong Weak
Poor Poor
Low Low
Strong Weak
Situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Optimal
Leadership
Style
Task Motivated
Leadership
Relationship
Motivated
Leadership
Task
Motivated
Leadership
Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency
Model

9. Employee Characteristics
- Locus of control
- Task ability
- Need for achievement
- Experience
- Need for clarity
Environmental Factors
- Task structure
- Work group dynamics
Leader Behavior
- Path-goal clarifying
- Achievement oriented
- Work facilitation
- Supportive
- Interaction facilitation
(refer to p 355 for rest of revision)
Leaderhip Effectivenes
- Employee motivation
- Employee satisfaction
-Employee performance
- Acceptance of leader
-Work unit performance
House’s Path-Goal Theory

10. Selling
S2
Explain decisions and
provide opportunity for
clarification
Participating
S3
Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making
Figure 14-3
Follower-Directed Leader-Directed
Low
Low
High
High
Leader Behavior
Task Behavior
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Relationship
Behavior
(supportive
behavior)
Delegating
S4
Turn over
responsibility for
decisions and
implementation
Telling
S1
Provide specific
instructions and closely
supervise performance
Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory

11. Behavior Recommended Behaviors
Listen Intensely listen to what others have to say.
Determine the true cause of performance
problems.
Examine Think through problems from all perspectives. Do
not play favorites and find solutions that benefit
everyone involved.
Assist Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.
Develop
Explain the rationale for decisions and implement
fair policies and procedures.
Encourage Provide employees with the resources needed to
do a job. Gently push people to advance into
more demanding roles.
Recognize Praise people for their good work. Focus on the
positive whenever possible.
Source: “CEO’s Need to Listen, Examine, Assist,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.
Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving
Leader Effectiveness

12. Transactional Leadership: focuses on the interpersonal
interactions between managers and employees
• Transactional Leaders
- use contingent rewards to motivate employees
- exert corrective action only when employees
fail to obtain performance goals
Transactional versus
Transformational Leadership

13.  Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes symbolic leader
behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational
goals over self-interests
• Charismatic Leaders
- use visionary and inspirational messages
- rely on non-verbal communication
- appeal to ideological values
- attempt to intellectually stimulate employees
- display confidence in self and followers
- set high performance expectations
• For class discussion and Exercise: Should a leader
be both transactional and charismatic? In what situations would
it be important that transactional leadership dominate?
Charismatic?
Transactional versus Transformational
Leadership (continued)

14. Individual and
Organizational
Characteristics
Leader
behavior
Effects on
followers and
work groups
Outcomes
• Traits •Leader establishes a
vision
•Increased intrinsic
motivation,
achievement
orientation, and goal
pursuit
•Personal
commitment
to leader and
vision
• Organizational
Culture
Transformational Model of Leadership

15. Individual and
Organizational
Characteristics
Leader
behavior
Effects on
followers and
work groups
Outcomes
• Organizational
Culture
•Leader establishes
high performance
expectations and
displays confidence
in him/herself and
the collective ability
to realize the vision
•Leader models the
desired values,
traits, beliefs, and
behaviors needed to
realize the vision
•Increased
identification with the
leader and the
collective interests of
organizational
members
•Increased cohesion
among workgroup
members
•Increased self-
esteem, self-efficacy,
and intrinsic interests
in goal
accomplishment
•Increased role
modeling of
charismatic leadership
•Self-sacrificial
behavior
•Organizational
commitment
•Task
meaningfulness
and satisfaction
•Increased
individual
group, and
organizational
performance
• Traits
Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)

16. • This model is based on the idea that one of two
distinct types of leader-member exchange
relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related
to important work outcomes.
- in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
mutual trust, respect and liking
- out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
• Research supports this model
The Leader-Member Exchange
(LMX Model)

17. • Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders
focus on increased service to others rather than to oneself.
• A superleader is someone who leads others to lead
themselves by developing employees’ self-management skills.
• Superleaders attempt to increase employees’ feelings of
personal control and intrinsic motivation.
Servant and Superleadership

18. 1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening to
identify and clarify the needs and desires of
a group.
2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with
others’ feelings and emotion. An individual’s
good intentions are assumed even when he
or she performs poorly.
3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves
and others whole in the face of failure or
suffering.
4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their
strengths and limitations.
Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader

19. )
5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion
than positional authority when making
decisions and trying to influence others.
6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort
to develop broader based conceptual
thinking. Servant-leaders seek an
appropriate balance between a short-
term, day-to-day focus and a long-term,
conceptual orientation.
7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee
future outcomes associated with a current
course of action or situation.
Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader (continued

20. 8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they are
stewards of the people and resources they
manage.
9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people
the growth of beyond their immediate work role. They
people commit to fostering an environment that
encourages personal, professional, and
spiritual growth.
10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of
Community community both within and outside the
work organization.
Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader (continued)

21. Leadership: Organizational
Perspective
 From The Ropes to Skip and the Ropes to
Know, Ritti and Levy, 7th edition, Wiley
 We have a fascination with “leaders”.
 Do times make the leader or is a leader born?
 What do we know?
 Leadership in organizations is “enacted”
 Management efficacy or the capacity to produce
results attributed to leaders

22. Leadership: Organizational
Perspective
 Organizations provide a cultural context
which provides a notion of what an effective
leader is
 The organization must perform
 Leader must play the role
 Communication is crucial
 One needs to convince people
 Must be seen as true
 And relate to existing organizational culture