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- 1. Chapter 7: Power and Politics
- 2. What Is It Like To Have Power? Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 2
- 3. What Is It Like To Have Power? Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 3
- 4. Power and Influence • Power is the potential of one person (or group) to influence another person or group • Influence can, therefore, be thought of as power in use Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 4
- 5. Bases of Power • Some forms of power come with a person’s position in the hierarchy: position power • Other power may come from the personal characteristics of the person and may have no relationship to their position in the organization: personal power Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 5
- 6. Bases of Power (Cont.) • Position Power • Coercive power: The authority to punish • Reward power: The authority to provide incentives or other things valued • Legitimate power: The authority to make a request and get a response due to the nature of the roles between two people (e.g., boss and direct report) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 6
- 7. Bases of Power (Cont.) • Personal Power • Expert power: The ability to influence others due to knowledge or a special skill set • Referent power: The ability to influence based on others’ identification with the individual and followers’ desire to emulate her Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 7
- 8. Bases of Power (Cont.) • Reactions to Power and Influence • Commitment • Compliance • Resistance Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 8
- 9. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 9 Bases of Power (Cont.)
- 10. Bases of Power (Cont.) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 10
- 11. Organizational Sources of Power • 1. Lines of supply • 2. Lines of information • 3. Lines of support Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 11
- 12. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 12 Organizational Sources of Power (Cont.)
- 13. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 13 Influence Strategies
- 14. Impression Management • Behaviors people use to protect their self-image and/or change the way they are seen by others • Affects interviewing, performance appraisal, and career success • Body language is an important part of impression management Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 14
- 15. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 15 Impression Management (Cont.)
- 16. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 16 Impression Management (Cont.)
- 17. Perceptions of Organizational Politics • The use of influence tactics is often seen as political • Perceptions of organizational politics have been associated with decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance (Kacmar et al., 1999) Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 17
- 18. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 18 Perceptions of Organizational Politics (Cont.)
- 19. Political Skill • The ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives • Political skill helps one execute influence tactics Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 19
- 20. Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 20 Political Skill (Cont.)
- 21. Leadership Implications: Managing With Power • Guidelines for Managing With Power • Recognize every organization has varying interests and the leader needs to diagnose the political landscape • Figure out what point of view various individuals and units have on issues of concern to the leader • Understand you need power, so you need to understand where power comes from and developed • Understand the strategies and influence tactics through which power is developed and used in organization Scandura, Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e. © SAGE Publications, 2019. 21
Editor's Notes
- Table 7.1. Effects of Power on the Power Holder. Research shows that having power has strong effects on a person’s thoughts (cognitions), affect (emotions and moods) and their behavior. A review of research summarized research findings on the effects of power on the person who holds it. The table shows the results of this review. For example, a person’s thoughts are changed, resulting in more optimism, risk-taking, and confidence. However, those with a lot of power do not always consider the perspectives of other people, and tend to rely on stereotypes of others. With respect to affect, they may have greater emotional displays (such as enthusiasm and pride). However, those in power may be less compassionate and unable to take the perspective of others. They lack empathy, and cannot feel the suffering of others. They feel more distant than others. On the flipside, people who feel powerless express more discomfort and fear when asked to discuss controversial subject matter.
- Table 7.1. Effects of Power on the Power Holder. Research shows that having power has strong effects on a person’s thoughts (cognitions), affect (emotions and moods) and their behavior. A review of research summarized research findings on the effects of power on the person who holds it. The table shows the results of this review. For example, a person’s thoughts are changed, resulting in more optimism, risk-taking, and confidence. However, those with a lot of power do not always consider the perspectives of other people, and tend to rely on stereotypes of others. With respect to affect, they may have greater emotional displays (such as enthusiasm and pride). However, those in power may be less compassionate and unable to take the perspective of others. They lack empathy, and cannot feel the suffering of others. They feel more distant than others. On the flipside, people who feel powerless express more discomfort and fear when asked to discuss controversial subject matter.
- Learning Objective 7.1: Define power and influence, and provide an example of each. It can be said that power is the other side of the leadership coin. Without power, leadership cannot be effective. If you think about it, leadership requires some form of deference to a leader: “if leadership involves actively influencing others, then followership involves allowing oneself to be influenced.” Yet, leaders are reluctant to admit that they want power, power and politics have been called the “last dirty words.” Power is defined as “having the discretion and the means to asymmetrically enforce one’s will over others.” Nearly all definitions of leadership include the idea of influencing others, and power is the source of influence.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. Five bases of power in organizations have been described. Some forms of power come with a person’s position in the hierarchy: position power. Other power may come from the personal characteristics of the person and may have no relationship to their position in the organization: personal power.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. Position power includes the following: Coercive power--The ability to punish, and can include threats. For example, a supervisor threatens to write a memorandum to an employee’s file for being late all the time. Reward power--The ability to provide incentives or other things valued, such as pay raises, bonuses, and promotions. For example, an employee receives a merit pay increase. Legitimate power--The ability to make a request and get a response due to the nature of the roles between two people (e.g., boss and direct report, a favor-doer and a favor-recipient), it is based upon structural level in the organization and/or a feeling of obligation. For example, an employee completes a sales report for their boss, and such reports are in their job description.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. The personal sources of power are not tied to position but can be generated by anyone in the organization. They help explain why many people in organizations have a great deal of power although they don’t have important-sounding titles and are not at the upper levels in the organizational hierarchy. These personal power sources are as follows: Expert power--The ability to influence others due to knowledge or a special skill set, or expertise. For example, the Information Technology department has special skills to trouble-shoot computer problems for a manager. Referent power--The ability to influence based upon others’ identification with the individual and followers’ desire to emulate them, it is based on liking, respect, and admiration. For example, volunteers work hard for a political candidate that they admire.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. Three possible outcomes of an influence attempt can be distinguished: Commitment--also known as internalization; a strong effort made and enthusiastically carries out the request. Both attitudes and behaviors change. Compliance--willing to complete the request but does so in an apathetic manner giving minimal effort; behavior only changes. Resistance--opposed to the request and refuses to do it. They may explain why they can’t complete it, try to change it, get superiors to change it, delay it or even sabotage the task by doing it wrong; no change in attitude or behavior toward the request.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. Figure 7.1: Bases of Power and Follower Responses Figure 7.1 above summarizes the bases of power and shows the likely responses from followers. Coercive power may be met with resistance, but referent power, in contrast, may result in commitment to the leader’s vision. Compliance can be expected from legitimate power and the ability of the leader to reward followers for their work. Expertise may also result in compliance, but it is higher than legitimate power since some may admire expertise and it may have some impact on commitment. The figure also depicts another important concept with respect to power: the “zone of indifference.” As shown in Figure 7.1 above, the “zone of indifference” falls between reward power and expert power and is centered on legitimate power. In most cases, followers will comply with directions from leaders because they fall within the zone in which they are indifferent.
- Learning Objective 7.2: Compare and contrast the five bases of power. Figure 7.2: Power and Talking Affects Team Communication and Performance A series of laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the impact of how much the formal leader of a group talks on the reactions of team members. MBA students were assigned to work on a leadership simulation. The first experiment showed that leaders who felt powerful were more likely to verbally dominate discussions and this decreased perceptions of their openness. As a result team performance was lower. The second experiment replicated these findings and further demonstrated the important role of team members’ reactions to leaders’ behavior. Specifically, although subjective feelings of power increased leaders’ autocratic tendencies, their formal role determined team members’ willingness to give in to them. The third experiment replicated the findings from Studies 1 and 2 with respect to formal leaders. This study also found that teams with powerful formal leaders reported higher levels of their leader talking, lower team open communication, and lower team performance. This only occurred when leaders were not reminded of the how important their team member input was for success. When leaders were reminded that all team members had the potential to contribute to team success, these effects did not emerge. These findings show that a leaders’ awareness of the importance of their team members motivates them to overcome their tendency to discount others’ perspectives and input. In other words, the negative effect of power on team open communication is eliminated. A summary of these research findings is shown in Figure 7.2 above.
- Learning Objective 7.3: Demonstrate understanding of the three lines of power in organizations by providing examples. Power is based on how much people depend up on others for necessary resources. A leader’s control over resources has been linked with follower perceptions of their power and outcomes of more hope and lower turnover. Rosabeth Moss Kanter described power as a property of organizational systems rather than individuals. She presented the following three “lines” of power for leaders in organizations to tap into to gain productive power: Lines of supply. Leaders bring in the things that their group needs such as materials, money, and resources such as rewards and even prestige. Lines of information. Leaders need to know what is happening in the organization that may affect their group’s goals. Having access to information from all areas of the organization is an important source of power. Also, knowing who to share information with (and not share it with) is an essential skill that leaders need to develop. Lines of support. A leader needs to be able to innovate to have an impact on the organization. She needs support that allows for risk-taking beyond typical organizational routines. Leaders also often need the backing of other influential managers in the organization to get things done.
- Learning Objective 7.3: Demonstrate understanding of the three lines of power in organizations by providing examples. Figure 7.3. Influence Without Authority. A model of influence without authority can be used in wide variety of situations. The model is based upon the “law of reciprocity” first articulated by Gouldner: the nearly universal belief that if someone does something for you, they should be paid back. The influence without authority process is depicted in Figure 7.3 above. It begins with assuming the other person is your ally and wants to exchange with you. You need to be clear about what your goals are and then understand the other person’s situation (showing empathy). Then you identify what you have to exchange (i.e., the currencies) and what you need from them. Dependence is created when you control resources that are important, scarce, and cannot be substituted by others. Examples of such resources are support, loyalty, and extra effort on the job.
- Learning Objective 7.4: Identify the most effective influence strategies. Table 7.2. Proactive Influence Tactics. So what does research show with respect to which tactics work and with whom? As noted earlier, followers may respond to an influence attempt with commitment, compliance, or resistance. OB research has demonstrated that the different influence strategies used have different reactions from followers and other targets of influence. Rational persuasion is a tactic commonly employed by leaders, and it is very effective--particularly if the leader is viewed as an expert. Apprising involves persuading the target of influence that complying will advance his career. It is more likely to be used with peers or followers than with the boss. Inspirational appeals try to arouse followers’ emotions and can work with all targets of influence. It may be particularly useful during times of organizational change. Consultation invites the person to be involved with a proposed idea and may be used in any direction as well. It may be particularly effective with peers in cross-functional teams, for example. Exchange is based on the quid pro quo in organizational life. It may be direct or indirect, but it will involve the idea that the exchange of favors will occur between the parties. This tactic has been shown to be more effective with peers than with bosses. Collaboration is an offer to provide assistance or resources to the person being asked to do something. It is used least with superiors in the organization but can be very effective with peers and followers. Ingratiation is compliment-giving or acting deferential. This tactic must be used with caution, because if it is overdone or comes across as insincere it can fail entirely. Personal appeals are based on friendship or loyalty and may be more appropriate with a peer or someone outside the organization than with bosses or subordinates. Asking someone to do something based on a personal friendship may be a risky strategy. Legitimating tactics remind the target of their role in the organization in relation to the person making the request--for example, “I am asking you to do this because it is your job.” This works with followers better than other targets. Pressure tactics are threats and relate to coercion. For this reason, pressure tactics should be used sparingly--even with followers where they are most commonly found. Coalition tactics involve gaining the support of others. They are more likely to be used with peers or bosses, but the idea is that there is “strength in numbers” and should be used carefully especially with supervisors or those higher in the organization. A meta-analysis of 8,987 respondents examined the impact of influence tactics and task (e.g., performance) and relationship outcomes (e.g., trust). Rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, apprising, collaboration, ingratiation, and consultation were positively related to both task and relationship effectiveness. Pressure was negatively related to both outcomes. Rational persuasion is the only tactic which held stable positive relationships with both task and relationship outcomes.
- Learning Objective 7.5: Compare and contrast “minimizing bad” and “maximizing good” impression management strategies. Impression management is a set of behaviors that people use to protect their self-image or change the way they are seen by others (or both). People are motivated to manage impressions for three reasons: the relevance of the goal of the impressions, the value of these goals, and difference between their desired and current image. For example, a person is motivated to manage impressions when they see their image as important for achieving a goal, such as a promotion or pay raise. Research has also shown that when people feel there is a discrepancy between the way they hope to be seen and how they are currently seen, they are more motivated to manage impressions. For example, if an employee thinks they are not liked by their coworkers, they may begin to compliment them (ingratiation). It is important to keep in mind that impression management may be an inauthentic representation of the self, so it’s important not to be seen as insincere when engaging in these behaviors.
- Learning Objective 7.5: Compare and contrast “minimizing bad” and “maximizing good” impression management strategies. Table 7.3. Examples of Impression Management Strategies. Table 7.3 above shows examples of impression management strategies in which some additional “minimizing bad” tactics were added such as apologies, excuses, and justifications. Impression management strategies have been found to be either job-focused (e.g., exemplification), supervisor-focused (e.g., ingratiation), or self-focused (e.g., self-promotion). Despite the large number of impression management tactics discovered, the strategies most relevant for leaders are the ones that maximize good intentions: exemplification, ingratiation, and self-promotion.
- Learning Objective 7.5: Compare and contrast “minimizing bad” and “maximizing good” impression management strategies. Figure 7.4. Power Poses. Making direct eye contact and having a relaxed facial expression predicts whether a person is viewed as having power. Recent research by Amy Cuddy and her colleagues has indicated a person’s body language is also an important aspect of impression management. For example, holding an expansive posture releases hormones that make a person feel more confident and, in turn, influences how they are perceived by others. For example, think about the stance of Wonder Woman with her arms on her hips and legs planted firmly apart. In the research, “power poses” were not superhero stances but were expansive--either sitting with one’s arms behind the head and legs up on a table or leaning forward on a table with arms spread apart. Another example of powerful body language is extending one’s hand with the palm down for a handshake. This communicates dominance. Examples of the power poses used in this research are shown in Figure 7.4 above.
- Learning Objective 7.6: Define Perceptions of Organizational Politics (POP) and evaluate the negative outcomes for employees having this perception. Organizational politics have been defined as unsanctioned influence attempts that seek to promote self-interest at the expense of organizational goals. Perceptions of Organizational Politics (POP) is defined as an individual’s subjective appraisal of the extent to which the work environment is characterized as self-serving of various individuals and groups, to the detriment or at the cost of other individuals or groups. This is an employee’s perceptual evaluation of a behavior as being political, and this may or may not reflect reality. POP consists of general political behavior, which includes the behaviors of individuals who act in a self-serving manner to obtain valued outcomes; going along to get ahead, which consists of a lack of action by individuals (e.g., remain silent) in order to secure valued outcomes; and pay and promotion policies, which involves the organization behaving politically through the policies it enacts.
- Learning Objective 7.6: Define Perceptions of Organizational Politics (POP) and evaluate the negative outcomes for employees having this perception. Figure 7.5. Influences on Perceptions of Organizational Politics. Research has shown that the job/work context factors have the most influence on POP (i.e., things like the lack of career opportunities and development, mistrust and low LMX). As Figure 7.5 shows, POP is related to job anxiety (stress), lower job satisfaction, increased turnover, and lower job performance as the meta-analytic studies reviewed above have shown. However, how much control a person has over their work and understanding of what is happening in the organization reduces the effects of POPS on stress and job satisfaction. It is important for a leader to build effective working relationships with all of the members of their work group, and be fair to avoid the emergence of POP.
- Learning Objective 7.7: Explain why political skill is important for a leader to be effective. Political skill has been defined as follows: the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives. Political skills are comprised of four sets of behaviors. First, networking ability is the ability to create a diverse constellation of contacts both inside and outside of the organization. Second, social astuteness is being able to accurately interpret the behavior of others through attentive observation. Third, interpersonal influence is having the ability to adapt influence strategies to different situations. Fourth, apparent sincerity is appearing to others as genuine and honest.
- Learning Objective 7.7: Explain why political skill is important for a leader to be effective. Figure 7.6. The Relationship of Political Will and Political Skill to Job Performance. Research has demonstrated how “will” and “skill” combine: having a strong power motive is related to being viewed as a formal leader in a group, but political skill is related to higher perceptions of leadership performance. The relationship between will and skill is now considered to be more complex and can best be described as an inverted “U” shaped relationship between will and job performance. In other words, having the will to use political skills will improve job performance--to a point. However, the will can go too far because if a person engages in too much political activity, it may actually harm their job performance. This relationship is shown in Figure 7.6 above. For example, if a leader constantly displays sincerity, people may begin to question whether or not they are genuine. Or the leader switch their influence style so often that they appear inconsistent to others. So scholars in the area of political skill offer a word of caution: it is important not to take your will and political skill behaviors to extremes.
- An effective leader needs to understand the difference between power and influence. Every leadership position will have some positional sources of power due to location in the organizational hierarchy. Generating power and storing it for future use is important. The skillful leader understands how to use this stored power to get things done and solve problems in the organization. Jeffrey Pfeffer, of Stanford University, an expert on power in organizations, and author of the best-selling book, Managing with power, offers the following guidelines for managing with power: Recognize that every organization has varying interests and the leader needs to first diagnose the political landscape. Understand these interests and who they belong to. Perceptions are not necessarily reality but they do influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Understand that Perceptions of Organizational Politics (POP) matter and affect employees’ satisfaction, performance, and stress levels. Develop political acumen by understanding that political skill can be learned, and may reduce the perceptions of politics in the organization. Figure out what point of view various individuals and units have on issues of concern to the leader. The secret to success to get those who hold different views from own on board with what we need and want them to do. In general, the personal sources of power (expert and referent) get the most positive responses from people in organizations. However, reward power can also be used effectively. Understand that to get things done, you need power--so you need to understand where power comes from and how the sources of power can be developed. Be willing to do things that build your sources of power. Know that power comes from position as well as individual personality and leadership style. Develop strategies for “maximizing good” impression management, as well as effective use of body language to convey that you have power. Assess whether you have the “will” to demonstrate political “skill” but be careful not to take political skills to an extreme or you may be viewed as a fake. Understand the strategies and influence tactics through which power is developed and used in organizations. These include influence strategies discussed in this chapter, but also the timing, the use of structure and the social psychology of commitment. This requires and understanding that the target of your influence strategies may respond with commitment, compliance, or resistance. As shown in this chapter, there is a zone of indifference, where compliance may be gained my making legitimate requests. However, the most effective response is commitment, where the target of your influence attempt internalizes your goals and responds by changing both their attitude and behavior.