Ketoacidosis Nursing Care Plan

Ketoacidosis Nursing Care Plan
"The Diagnosis, Pathophysiology and Acute Pre Hospital Care Plan for a Patient Presenting with the
Symptoms of Diabetic Ketoacidosis"
As medical clinicians we are required to diagnose and treat patients for various conditions. Along
with this diagnosis it is important to understand the pathophysiology of the condition and justify
why this particular treatment/s was given. In this patient the signs and symptoms that were presented
lead to the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
Pathophysiology Diabetes is a chronic condition that is characterized by a partial or absolute insulin
deficiency. There are various forms of diabetes such as type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes
(Curtis, Ramsden & Lord, 2011). If a patient ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When focusing on the liver, the main pathogenic anomaly responsible for the body's hyperglycemia
in DKA is the increased hepatic glucose production. In a controlled diabetic state or a non–diabetic
insulin promotes storage and synthetic pathways in the liver such as glycogenesis and lipolysis
(McKenna, Sanders & Sanders, 2012). The absence of insulin triggers the hormones (See Figure 2.)
to increase and glucagon becomes the primary source for running the carbohydrate metabolism
(Management of DKA arcticle). Catecholaines and glucagon fuel glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis (is this relevant??). The decreased peripheral glucose uptake and the increase of
hepatic glucose production are contributors to the hyperglycaemic state commonly associated and
seen with DKA patients (Management of DKA arcticle). *** Fatty acid oxidation and ketone
paragraph***. Focusing now on the adipose tissue of the patient. In the presence of insulin the
lipoprotein lipase catabolizes lipoprotein into triglycerides thus allowing the transformation of
triglycerides into fat cells (Management of DKA arcticle) (Curtis, Ramsden & Lord, 2011). In the
absence of insulin tissue lipase activity is increased which results in the release of fatty acids and
glycerol into the bloodstream. Furthermore catecholamines bind to
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Essay on The Need to Treat Obsesity in the United States
The prevalence of obesity–related comorbidities such as type–2 diabetes and heart diseases in the
US emphasizes the need for concerted efforts to prevent and treat obesity1–3. A decrease in 5% of
body weight significantly reduces cardiovascular risk in humans4 which proves the urgency of
weight management. A combination of drug and lifestyle intervention is ideal for obesity
management5–8. Unfortunately, the current anti–obesity medications that inhibit food intake or
absorption are partly effective9,10. Thus, an alternate approach is to target energy metabolism11–19
due to the fact that obesity results when energy storage in the adipose tissue exceeds its
expenditure20. However, due to the complexity of adipose tissue21, the fundamental ... Show more
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Accordingly, AMPK, PGC1and their thermogenic target, the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) are
dramatically upregulated in K1–KO adipose tissues. Moreover, IP6K1 generated IP7 inhibits AMPK
activity in vitro. Based on these preliminary results, our working hypothesis is that IP6K1 regulates
energy metabolism by inhibiting the AMPK–PGC1 pathway. To test this, we will measure core
body temperature; –oxidation and browning in adipose depots of K1–KO mice fed a high fat diet
or exposed to cold stress. We will measure –oxidation and mitochondrial respiration in K1–KO
adipocytes and in inducible IP6K1 knock–down adipocyte cell lines. Utilizing enzyme assays and
hydrogen deuterium exchange (HDX) studies, we will determine the molecular mechanism by
which IP6K1/IP7 inhibits AMPK. Furthermore, we will monitor the AMPK stimulator; 5–
Aminoimidazole–4–carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) mediated –oxidation and insulin
sensitivity in K1–KO mice. Successful completion of this aim will establish IP6K1 as a novel
regulator of energy expenditure.
Aim 2: Identify functions of IP6K1 in lipolysis. K1–KO mice exhibit enhanced fasting induced
weight loss. They also display enhanced basal lipolysis and downregulation of the lipolytic
modulator perilipin1 (PLIN1) in the adipose tissues. IP6K1 possesses a lipase motif by which it
binds and stabilizes PLIN1. PKA (Protein kinase A) phosphorylates IP6K1 especially during –
adrenergic receptor (–AR)

Brown Adipocytes Research Paper
Adipocytes in human white adipose tissues can change from white to brown and oppositely .Fat is
mostly stored in white adipose tissue (WAT). Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is additional fat storage,
which in contrast to white adipose tissue is capable to produce heat and preserve body temperature.
Brown adipocytes are located in the brown adipose tissue and smaller populations were recognized
within white adipose tissue. Brown adipose tissue developed in mammals to dissipate large amounts
of biochemical energy in form of heat for protection from the cold. Upon cold exposure, brown
adipose tissue is activated by central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms over and done with the
sympathetic nervous system(160). 160
The thermogenic response in brown adipocytes is mediated by matchlessly augmented mitochondria
expressing thermogenin (also called uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in the inner membrane.UCP1 lets
brown adipocytes to dissipate the electrochemical gradient that is normally used to drive ATP
synthesis. But, the thermogenic response cannot only be explained by UCP1, as the expression of
numerous genes complicated in energy metabolism is increased in experimental animals to a cold
environment. Lately the significance of NPRA and NPRB in brown adipose tissue is discovered
(160). 160 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nevertheless, adrenergic compounds have the potential to increase stroke and heart attack risk,
likely through influences on heart rate and blood pressure. Catecholamines raise intracellular cAMP,
directly activating PKA (cAMP dependent protein kinase), which phosphorylates HSL and kinases
of the p38 MAPK pathway, 38 MAPK inhibition attenuates adrenergically mediated UCP1
expression (160).

WAT Utilitarianism
OBESITY AND WAT METABOLISM
Overview of WAT It was previous thought that WAT is only an energy storage facility. Research has
also shown that WAT aids in the homeostasis of lipids and provides a buffering system postprandial.
Postprandial, adipocytes uptake fatty acids while suppressing the release of non–esterified fatty
acids into circulation. This action becomes extremely important when buffering no longer takes
place due to storage limits of the adipocytes. The following elevated concentrations of triglycerides,
fatty acids and inappropriate location storage, including liver, skeletal muscle and pancreatic beta
cells leading to metabolic complications (Frayn 2002, Virtue and Vidal–Puig 2008).
Endocrine organ Research has shown that WAT has endocrine capabilities, including, secreting a
number of protein hormones and signals known as adipokines. There is evidence that shows that
adipose tissue will secrete more than 50 different hormones and signaling ... Show more content on
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1994). Leptin is secreted primarily by adipocytes, proportionally to fat cell mass, and contributes to
energy metabolism. Leptin will affect the energy balance by acting on the brain. Leptin can activate,
directly or indirectly, specific centers in the hypothalamus to decrease food intake, to increase any
energy expenditure, to influence the glucose, lipid metabolism, and alter neuroendocrine function
(Campfield, Smith et al. 1995). Leptin resistance, in regards to obesity, was coined due to the
increased leptin levels with no impact on regulating energy homeostasis. Leptin resistance causes
insulin resistance and the accumulation of lipids is a direct result of the reduction of lipid oxidation
in insulin–sensitive organs; shown in preclinical and clinical experiments with obese rodents and
humans. However, the mechanisms that may lead to leptin resistance are still being researched
(Mori, Hanada et al.

Summary Of Activation Of Mtorc1
In the paper "Activation of mTORC1 is essential for β–adrenergic stimulation of adipose browning"
by Dianxin Liu et al, the authors sought to learn about the relationships between the opposing
hormone regulating systems of adipocytes, Insulin and catecholamines, and their effects on the
protein mTOR and its regulatory protein RAPTOR. These interactions may lead to discoveries that
can ultimately help us enhance energy expenditure and combat metabolic disease. Adipose tissue
depots perform a wide range of functions in the human body and consists mainly of two varieties,
white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT stores extra caloric energy in the
form of triglycerides, while BAT in direct contrast, rapidly converts oxidative energy into heat for
survival in the cold. In addition, adipose depots also secrete proteins and other factors that are a part
of energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The catecholamines consist of norepinephrine and epinephrine, and their role is activate B–
adrenergic receptors (βARs) to increase cAMP levels and cAMP–dependent protein kinase A (PKA)
activity. This phosphorylation stimulates the release of adipose energy stores due to lipolysis (the
hydrolysis of triglycerides) and the liberation of free fatty acids. Insulin is the opposing metabolic
regulator that antagonizes the action of catecholamines to stimulate lipolysis by activating
phosphodiesterases that degrade cAMP and by using the protein kinase AKT to activate lipid
synthesis pathways to promote energy

Diabetes Of Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm )
Introduction:
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood sugar levels
over an extended period of time. With symptoms including increased urination, thirst, and hunger,
diabetes is mainly due to loss of insulin production in the pancreas or lack of response to insulin
produced. As of 2015, nearly 415 million people worldwide have diabetes with the three main types
being Type 1, Type 2, and gestational. 90% of all diabetes cases are Type 2 (T2D) which is
characterized by insulin resistance, high blood sugar, and lack of insulin. Also known as noninsulin–
dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), this disease is primary caused by obesity and lack of
exercise in genetically predisposed people and affects in nearly 29 million people in the US alone,
making it the 7th leading cause of death in the country (American Diabetes Association 2016).
The goal of a diabetes treatment plan is lowering HbA1c to below 7.0%, maintaining good glycemic
control. Glycated hemoglobin or HbA1c is a blood sugar test that reflects the average plasma
glucose concentration over the past three months. The first and best course of treatment is always
lifestyle changes that includes exercise, diet modification, and weight control. Unfortunately, when
this management plan fails or is insufficient, the next option is to take medications to lower HbA1c.
Five non–insulin pharmacological options are available. First, biguanides in the form of metformin
are quick

Stem Cell Regulation
Skin with its hair follicle is an excellent system to study molecular mechanism of stem cell
regulation. Due to constant need of tissue regeneration, it has abundant number of stem cells. Hair
follicle consist of a permanent portion– sebaceous gland and below it is a bulge area, which houses–
Hair follicle epidermal stem cells(HFSCs). Bulge also provides niche for melanocyte stem cells
interspersed between HFSCs. Behavior of the two stem cells is well coordinated. Differentiating
melanocytes transfer pigment to terminally differentiated hair follicles (Nishimura et al., 2002;
Tanimura et al., 2011; Rabbani et al., 2011).Hair follicle undergoes cyclical bouts of 3 phases–
anagen (phase of active growth), catagen (destruction phase) and telogen (rest phase) (Hardy, 1992).
HFSCs give rise to daughter stem cells which are retained in the bulge area and others form, either
epidermal progenitors which migrate upwards during tissue repair or it forms hair–matrix
progenitors which migrate below to form hair shaft (Niemann & Watt 2002; Oshima et al., 2001;
Taylor et al. 2000).
In early 1990s, HFSCs were located in the bulge region by label retention studies (Cotsarelis et al.,
1990; Morris and Potten, 1994). Later in 2001, presence of HFSCs in bulge area was confirmed by
transplantation experiments. When lac–z labeled bulge region from adult mice was transplanted into
hairless mice, lac–z labeled cells formed morphologically distinct hair follicle (Oshima et., 2001).
Lineage tracing

Research Study On Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are fibroblast–like structural cells that are found in bone marrow,
skeletal muscle, and other connective tissues. MSC derived from bone marrow (BM) have been
shown to be self renewing and are capable of differentiation into a variety of stromal cell types
including bone forming osteoblasts, fat storing adipocytes, and neurons. Another trait exhibited by
BM–MSC is their supportive role in hematopoiesis (blood genesis). This behavior has been utilized
to enhance efficacy of co–transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). BM–MSC are
gathered using painful procedures in which penetrating bone to access the marrow. This article
investigates the umbilical cord (UC) as a source of MSC and compares the cells gathered in this
manner with BM–MSC. Previous methods for obtaining UC–MSC involved extracting the cells
from the single vein found on the umbilical cord. This method was met with 30% success with this
group. A new method involving the use of the whole cord was created and attempted. This method
was then compared to the traditional practice to isolate MSC, through bone marrow aspiration. The
research group did this by dicing the cord into 1–2 mm fragments and enzymatically digesting said
fragments in collagenase and trypsin. The cell suspension was then filtered and cultured in cell
culture flasks. Cultures were split when concentrations increased and were replated at a lower
concentration. Bone marrow aspirate from healthy, willing

Women Fat Research Paper
Fats in the human body are stored in cells known as adipocytes. Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes
and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.
Fat can also be stored as "droplets" in skeletal muscle cells that hold about 2,000–3,000 kilocalories.
Some fat even flows freely through the blood in a human body. Fat is one of the three
macronutrients. Macronutrients are substance required in large quantities in a living organism. Other
than fat, proteins and carbohydrates are macronutrients. Women can carry more fat than women.
The fat in a woman represents around 18%–20% of her body weight. The fat in a man only
represents about 10%–15% of his body weight. There is one main reason for this. That reason being
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Women also often metabolize fat faster than men. Women are also better at burning fat in exercise
than men, making it easier for them to lose the fat that they gain. During exercise, women exhibit
less respiratory exchange ratios than men. This means that women have more fat burning and less
carb burning. Although women can mostly lose fat quicker than men, they can gain it quicker to.
Women make more triglycerides, which is an ester derived from glycerol and fatty acids, than men
do. This means that the fat is being taken up into the adipose tissue at a higher rate in women than
men. Also, even if women generally burn fat simpler, they are more have a higher overall obesity
rate compared to men. 25 percent of adult women in the United States are obese and 20 percent of
adult men are obese in the United States. Men generally carry their weight and fat in their abdominal
area, or they have an android body type. Most women carry their fat and weight in their hips and
thighs, which is a pear body type. The difference in the shape of the bod has reasons that are
unknown, but theorists believe that it is based on differences in

Mama Cell Research Paper
was a sunny summer day on the coast of Venezuela. Mama and baby cell were beginning to doze off
when suddenly the skin of their human was attacked by a mosquito! The mosquito's mouth reached
all the way into the dermis, the middle layer of the skin. Mama cell told baby cell that the dermis is
made up of blood vessels, glands, and connective tissue and that's how the mosquito is getting
blood. After the mosquito had finished its meal mama cell noticed a big moving ball coming into the
epidermis. Mama cell showed her baby that the Cells above them are flat cells called squamous and
that her and baby are round cells called basal. After this mama explained that the epidermis, in
which they make up, does not have blood vessels and is keratinized

Isolation And Characterization Of Human Umbilical Cord...
Summary of:
Isolation and Characterization of Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells with
Hematopoiesis–supportive Function and Other Potentials (Lu et al. 2006)
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are fibroblast–like structural cells that are found in bone marrow,
skeletal muscle, and other connective tissues. MSC derived from bone marrow (BM) have been
shown to be self renewing and are capable of differentiation into a variety of stromal cell types
including bone forming osteoblasts, fat storing adipocytes, and neurons. Another trait exhibited by
BM–MSC is their supportive role in hematopoiesis (blood genesis). This behavior has been utilized
to enhance efficacy of co–transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). BM–MSC are
gathered using painful procedures in which penetrating bone to access the marrow. This article
investigates the umbilical cord (UC) as a source of MSC and compares the cells gathered in this
manner with BM–MSC. Previous methods for obtaining UC–MSC involved extracting the cells
from the single vein found on the umbilical cord. This method was met with 30% success with this
group. A new method involving the use of the whole cord was created and attempted. This method
was then compared to the traditional practice to isolate MSC, through bone marrow aspiration. The
research group did this by dicing the cord into 1–2 mm fragments and enzymatically digesting said
fragments in collagenase and trypsin. The cell suspension was then filtered and cultured

Proinflammatory Muscle Synthesis
TNF–α is secreted primarily from the myeloid cells and is a potent proinflammatory cytokine. This
cytokine results mainly in the release of the inflammatory cytokines, IL–1β, and IL–6 (Chen and
Goeddel 2002), and was the first WAT derived inflammatory cytokine involved in the initiation and
progression of insulin resistance (Hotamisligil, Shargill et al. 1993, Tilg and Moschen 2008).
Though it was originally believed that TNF–α was secreted by adipose tissue, a majority of it is
secreted by adipose tissue resident macrophages (Weisberg, McCann et al. 2003). In mice, it was
proven that those lacking TNF– α or its receptors, which are positively correlated markers, were
protected against insulin resistance (Kern, Saghizadeh et al. 1995, Uysal, ... Show more content on
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2000, Vozarova, Weyer et al. 2001). Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases less IL–6 when compared
to visceral adipose tissue. IL–6 has been associated with being marker for visceral adiposity (Fried,
Bunkin et al. 1998). Two different studies have given two different results to the role that IL–6 plays
in obesity and diabetes. The first study stated that higher IL–6 levels are present in those patients
with insulin resistance that is related to obesity (Bastard, Jardel et al. 2000, Vozarova, Weyer et al.
2001). However, the second study states that IL–6 levels do indeed correlate with fat mass and
adiposity, while not confirming that they correlate with insulin action or responsiveness (Kern,
Ranganathan et al. 2001). IL–6 has an anti–inflammatory effect during exercise and it can increase
the skeletal muscles level of glucose, which in turn leads to myogenesis, hypertrophy of muscles,
and AMPK–mediated fatty acid oxidation (Starkie, Ostrowski et al.

Hepatic Steatosis Research Paper
Fatty liver disease is a growing epidemic with a prevalence of 20–30% in the adult global
population [1] and in 70% patients with diabetes due to increased hepatic triglyceride content [2]. In
patients with non–alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), 50% will evolve to fibrosis, 10–15% to
cirrhosis and 5.4% to hepatic impairment [1] Hepatic steatosis may affect the whole liver diffusely
or in focal circumscribed areas near anatomical landmarks [3]. It can be identified in specific
locations such as the gallbladder fossa, the subcapsular region, and the porta hepatis. Focal hepatic
steatosis may attain a wedge–shaped or geographic appearance with absence of a mass effect and
visualization of normal vasculature passing through these fatty regions [4]. The natural prevalence
of hepatic steatosis was analyzed in the abdominal CT scans of 1,425 healthy adults and revealed
that fatty infiltration occurred in 9.7%, of which 68% were diffuse, 9% being focal and solitary, and
22% being focal and multiple in distribution and the prevalence increases with age suggesting that
focal patterns of hepatic steatosis are not rare mainly in older males with central

Essay about Anti-Obesity Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty...
Anti–obesity effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids
Introduction
In recent years, obesity has become a significant health problem in industrialized countries such as
the United States. Obesity is strongly associated with increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes
mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidemia, coronary heart disease, and congestive heart failure. The World
Health Organization has defined obesity as one of the top ten global health problems. High–fat diets
containing large amounts of saturated fat and low amounts of unsaturated fat, may directly increase
the prevalence of obesity (Li, 2008). Research studies have suggested that polyunsaturated fatty
acids have an influence on body adiposity, and may exert "anti–obesity" effects ... Show more
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These fish oils are not produced in humans, but are not considered essential; although they take part
in important functions such as in cell membranes, gene interactions, and others (Williams, 2009).
For example, omega 3 fatty acid supplementation containing DHA has been observed to lessen the
inflammatory component of several chronic diseases (Browning 2003; Calder 2006). The
cardioprotective effects of supplementing DHA and EPA are well documented; they have been
shown to reduce total serum triacylglycerol concentrations, blood pressure, platelet aggregation, and
inflammation (Breslow 2006; Richter 2003).
Far fewer studies have focused on the "anti–obesity" effects of DHA and EPA. However, these
studies have reported enhanced lipid oxidation, increased thermogenesis, prevention of free fatty
acids from entering adipocytes for lipogenesis, as well as other potential "anti–obesity" effects (Li,
2008).
Underlying Mechanisms of Anti–Obesity Effects of PUFA
PUFA decrease energy intake and/or increase energy expenditure
The body's ability to maintain a balance between energy intake and output is controlled by multiple
complex systems and imbalance of this system leads to metabolic symptoms such as obesity.
Obesity normally occurs when energy intake exceeds energy output (Hanbauer et al 2009). It has
been shown that overtime appetite is stimulated when there is a decrease in the circulating level of
fat metabolizing products. An individual's

Involvement of Canonical Insulin
To look at the involvement of canonical insulin/PI3K/Akt pathway in adipocytes leptin secretion the
study measured it using insulin resistant DIO mice with HFD and CD fed mice, with the HFD mice
gaining higher body and fat mass. Cell lysate of both HFD and CD fed mice were subjected to
western blotting and it was observed that phospho–Akt level in adipocytes from HFD fed mice was
lower than the CD fed mice after insulin stimulation, showing insulin resistance in the HFD fed
mice. Also, the fasting leptin level of HFD fed mice is ten times higher than the CD fed mice.
Refeeding, resulted in no significant increase in plasma leptin levels in HFD fed mice after two
hours, whereas with the CD fed mice there was a significant increase in plasma leptin levels. This
implies that leptin production and/or secretion after refeeding is impaired in HFD fed mice. To
verify that there is a decrease in systematic leptin level, the researchers isolated primary adipocytes
from HFD and CD fed mice and then determined ISLS in ex vivo. The result was that ISLS was
significantly lower in primary adipocytes from HFD fed mice. This supports the hypothesis that
impaired ISLS in HFD fed mice in vivo and ex vivo was dependent on PI3K/Akt activation.
Furthermore, there is an essential role of PI3K/Akt in regulating ISLS in primary adipocytes as seen
when blocking PI3K activity with wortmannin. This significantly inhibits ISLS without affecting
basal leptin secretion. Also, AKT 1/2 inhibitor Akti

Obesity : The Major Health Problems Worldwide
Obesity is one of the major health problems worldwide. The World Health Organization estimated
that over 1.4 billion people around the world diagnosed with overweight and obesity in 2008
(Haberka, Stolarz–Skrzpek, Cazrnecka, Gasior, Olszanecka–Glinianowicz. 2014. P,1). At all ages
and throughout the world, women are generally found to have higher rate of obesity than men. The
method that used to measure the obesity is the body mass index. The body mass index is the weight
divided by height squared. Adults with body mass index between 25 to 29.9 considered overweight,
while BMI more than 30 considered as obese. Being obese can cause other unwanted medical
condition, and that been noticed for a ver long time ago. "In fact, in 400 BC, ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Cardiovascular Disease Obesity is associated with numerous medical conditions such as coronary
heart disease, hypertension, cognitive heart failure and atrial fibrillation. It is also consider one of
the risk factors of cardiovascular disease. Most of patients with hypertension are overweight.
Hypertension is most likely happens in obese than other patients. High blood pressure not only
considered as risk factor but it could also cause weight gain in young people. "Among men, the
prevalence of high blood pressure increased progressively with increasing BMI, from 15% at a BMI
of <25 kg/m2 to 38% at a BMI of ≥30 kg/m2" (Poirier, Giles, Bray, Hong, Stern, Pi–Sunyer, Eckel.
2006. P, 12). Pulmonary hypertension, which is a rear lung disorder that makes the blood flow
through the vessels more difficult, may also be associated with morbid obesity during exercises. The
prevalence of congestive heart failure has been increasing, resulting in high mortality rate.
"Kenchaiah studied 5,881 Framingham Heart Study participants and confirmed a 5% increase in HF
prevalence in men and a 7% increase in women for every 1 kg/m2 increase in BMI, with the risk of
HF increasing across the entire spectrum of BMI." (Lavie, McAuley, Church, Milani, Blair. 2004.
P,23). Obesity also has an effect on coronary heart disease risk factors. Although some studies
indicated that coronary heart disease may not be increased in healthy obese patients. Thus,
congestive heart failure has a strong

Proinflammation Research Paper
Inflammation is significant as the causative path via which obesity predisposes women to pre–
eclampsia. Abnormal adipokine production and infiltration of inflammatory cells portray adipose
tissue de–function. Visceral fat produces more C–reactive protein and inflammatory cytokines
compared to subcutaneous fat, furthermore it donates more to oxidative stress(114).Obesity and
insulin resistance are inflammatory conditions, portrayed by greater than before production of
proinflammatory cytokines besides of inflammatory signaling pathways activation (181).
Obesity is revealed to be a vital jeopardy factor for changes of metabolic and inflammatory
parameters during the course of pregnancy that influence adaptation. A great body of evidence taken
throughout gestation enlightening an elevated levels of leptin,TG, CRP and IL–6, and on the other
hand, low down levels of HDL–C in obese mothers in comparison to women of normal body mass
index(BMI)(151). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Concerning the pathogenesis of chronic metabolic diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus and
atherosclerosis, lipids and lipid signals are considered as critical in the amalgamation of metabolic
and inflammatory response systems. This besides cytokines and extracellular mediators i.e. lipids
and intracellular stress. Hypertensive pregnancy endoplasmic reticulum stress and excess production
of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species(ROS) can start metaflammatory pathways in metabolically
active cells for example adipocytes and tissue macrophages. The adipocytokine fatty acid binding
protein–4(FABP4) mixes inflammatory and metabolic responses

Adipose Tissue : Overview Of Physiological Functions
Adipose Tissue: Overview of Physiological Functions
Hong Lan Huang, 1296959
Abstract With increasing number of obese people in the world, people tend to have more interests in
body fat other than its basic structure. Many people often struggle to lose weight in order to have
perfect body shape, or to prevent obesity induced chronic diseases. Failure to prevent excess of body
weight in one's body might result to life threat diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart
diseases. Before, body fat is simply known as a lipid droplet cell. Today, more studies and
experiments are conducted in favor of examine the importance of adipose tissue's function in the
human body. Adipose tissue (body fat) has a significant physiological role to maintain body's
homeostasis. The following review will provide prominent knowledge of the adipose tissue's
development, structure, functions, and its relation to obesity. Adipose tissue is extremely essential
for one's health by performing as a heat generating organ, an immunological organ, and an
endocrine organ.
Introduction It is interesting to know that many people might perceive higher proportion of body fat
in human is both advantageous and disadvantageous. On the one hand, fat protects human's bodies.
For example, some people believe that fat people feel less cold than thin people in extreme cold
weather. In other cases, some people believe that fat people get less injured than thin people in an
accident. On the other hand,

Cellulite
Cellulite is a condition of adipose origin in which adipose tissue protrudes through the dermis
causing an 'orange peel' or 'cottage cheese' type dimpling of skin seen most commonly on the thighs
and buttocks of many post–pubertal women. The initial changes leading to cellulite formation
appear to be deterioration of the capillary network, vascular changes and abnormal deposits of
glycosaminoglycans, leading to excess fluid retention within subcutaneous tissues. A variety of
treatments ranging from topical creams to laser therapies are currently available, claiming to reduce
the dimpled skin appearance however successful results are often anecdotal, subjective or not
present at all.
Cellulite can be primarily found in any area of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The inability to repair tissue damage due to continued oedema and vascular congestion can lead to
thickening and sclerosis of the fibrous septae in the superficial adipose tissue and deep dermis,
creating the clinical appearance of cellulite.
Cellulite is an unwanted condition and a rising demand for cellulite reduction has new non–invasive
treatment modalities becoming popular. Currently there are numerous medications, devices and
diverse therapies that allegedly treat cellulite however there is little evidence to support long term
effectiveness. Due to the nature of cellulite, effective treatment would need to repair and strengthen
the dermis as well as expel the fat protrusion back underneath the dermis. Retinoids are thought to
increase dermal collagen fibres, allowing the dermis to prevent further herniation of fat as the
collagen deposition makes the dermis much stronger, therefore reducing the appearance of cellulite.
Endermologie is a hand–held mechanical system used to simulate manual massages of the skin. It is
hypothesized that it is able to reduce the appearance of cellulite by causing damages to the
subcutaneous fat cells by positive (rolling) and negative (suction) pressures, disrupting fat cells and
allowing for better distribution of subcutaneous fat.
The long–pulsed 1064–nm neodymium yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) produces a non–
specific dermal heat to trigger a wound healing response resulting in

Effects of Insulin on IGF-1 Receptors
Pref 1 has been linked to IGF–1 and ERK–MAPK pathways where prevention of ERK
phosphorylation by the MAPK/ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor PD98059 enhances adipocytes
differentiation (Wang, 2010). Insulin also binds to IGF–1 receptors with low affinity (Smith, 1988)
and stimulates the formation of an active Ras–GTP complex and ERK–MAPK pathway (Porras,
1996) and the PI3K pathway. Both these pathways appear to be required for adipogenesis (Sale,
1995; Sakaue, 1998; Tang, 2005). The Ras–GTP complex activates RAF kinase which is
phosphorylated to induce MAPK. The phosphorylated MAPK interacts with Elk1.
Phohosphorylation of Ekl1 facilitates binding to the mediator complex via the Med23 subunit
(Stevens, 2002; Wang, 2005). The mediator complex is a multi–protein complex which bridges gene
specific transcription factors and transcriptional machinery. The Mediator Med23 (Sur2) subunit
was originally identified as a genetic suppressor of a hyperactive Ras phenotype in C.elegans
(Singh, 1995). Elk1 is a member of the ternary complex factor family and an important regulator of
adipogenesis. The Elk1/Med23 interaction controls the expression of Krox20 in a MAPK dependent
manner by promoting a productive preinitiation complex which leads to transcription (Wang, 2009).
Krox20 is expressed in adipose tissue (Soukas, 2001) and is the first transcriptional factor expressed
during adipogenesis after insulin stimulation (Chen, 2005; Gonzalez, 2005). Krox20 expression has
been reported to regulate

Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT)
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is derived from the mesenchymal precursor cell which also seems to
give rise to muscle . BATis located mainly around the neck, paravertebral sites, kidneys and large
blood vessels of the thorax. As previously mentioned above, Marcus (1988), demonstrated that TSH
induced lipolysis in BAT from newborns and infants but this declined with age. Recent studies have
profiled different layers of BAT in adults, particularly in the neck and between the shoulder blades
(Nedergaard, 2013). BAT contains multilocular lipid droplets and a high mitochondrial content. Its
primary function is to liberate energy as heat via the consumption of stored energy. This is mediated
by the uncoupling protein–1 (Ucp–1), which embeds in the inner mitochondrial membrane and
produces heat by dissipating the proton electrochemical gradient over the inner mitochondrial
membrane space without generating ATP. The energy in BAT? is stored as perilipin coated lipid
droplets and glycogen granules. Upon temperature stimulation glucose and fatty acid uptake is
rapidly increased to replenish its supplies (reviewed in Sanchez–Gurmaches, 2013).
BRITE adipose tissue occurs within WAT tissue depots, in response to chronic cold exposure. Beige
adipose tissue has the characteristics of both white and brown adipocytes. They appear to be like
WAT in basal states but upon cold stimulation, they behave like BAT by becoming multilocular and
expressing the brown fat marker UCP1. However, they are

Type 2 Diabetes: A Case Study
Obesity has exclusively negative impacts on human health due to its disruption of key components
of the body's Control and Communication Network, especially the Local Support and Defence
System and the Endocrine System. These disturbances carry harsh penalties as they can cause the
development of dangerous and often irreversible chronic diseases.
Type II Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease linked to obesity (Singla et al. 2010). Adipocytes
produce several hormones and cytokines, including those that regulate metabolism and
inflammatory responses in the body (Singla et al. 2010). Obese individuals characteristically have
excess adipose tissue, which results in the overproduction of these signalling molecules, disturbing
communication pathways. (Singla et al. 2010). For example, non–essential fatty acids (NEFAs) and
the hormone resistin, both secreted by adipose tissue, are overproduced by obese individuals; excess
NEFAs and resistin results in suppression of insulin activity in metabolic pathways, decreasing
glucose tolerance (Singla et al. 2010) (Kahn et al. 2006). Pro–inflammatory cytokines produced by
adipocytes, including tumour necrosis factor–α (TNF–α) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Obese individuals tend to have adipose tissue that displays a combination of hyperplasia and
hypertrophy (Surmi and Hasty 2008). This increase in both cell size and number can lead to a
hypoxia of certain adipocytes, ultimately resulting in cell death (Surmi and Hasty 2008). Phagocytic
macrophages are therefore continually recruited into the adipose tissue to clear the dead cells,
causing a state of prolonged inflammation (Surmi and Hasty 2008). Like adipocytes, activated
macrophages also release inflammatory peptides such as IL–6 and TNF–α; these cytokines activate
the NF–kB transcription factor, which is a common marker of malignant cancer tumours due to its
promotion of cell proliferation and metastasis (Hursting and Hursting

How Fats Can Provide Energy For Exercise
Fats can provide energy for exercise, especially when the intensity of the exercise is light and even
moderate. All people need some fat for producing cell membranes, for their skin, hormones
production, and transport of fat–soluble vitamins.
The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range for fats is between 20% and 35% of the total
daily calories. Other organizations such as the American Heart Association or the National
Cholesterol Education Program have recommended a lower fat percentage. They both recommend a
limit of thirty percent or less for total fats. For Roger, a long distance runner who also does a fair
amount of weight lifting, I would recommend a fat percentage on the lower side of the 20 to 35%
range, simply to allow sufficient calories for carbohydrates (to fuel those long runs) and protein to
build up his muscles as he weight trains. Since Roger needs to consume a higher quantity of calories
to avoid an energy deficit and weight loss, he'll still be consuming substantial fat calories. This will
allow him to eat oily fish such as salmon, which has omega 3 fats, linked to reducing inflammation,
which is important for an older athlete. Just as important as the total quantity of fat, it is essential to
minimize the daily amount of saturated fats, especially hydrogenated / trans fats. For the above
reasons, I recommend Roger consume only 20 to 25 percent of his daily calories from fat. When he
is carbo loading before a race his twice per month long

The Therapeutic Potential Of Genistein For Obesity Linked...
The Therapeutic Potential of Genistein for Obesity–Linked Cancer First Author1, Second Author2
(14) 1(Department, College/ University Name, Country Name) (10 Italic) 2(Department, College/
University Name, Country Name) (10 Italic) Abstract: With obesity and cancer being a global issue,
this review will be focused on linking genistein's ability to simultaneously treat both related
diseases. Extensive studies have been done on genistein as a therapy for diabetes and obesity, but
not enough has been researched in its effect on obesity–associated cancer. Obesity–linked cancer
arises at a cellular level due to adipocytes' ability to release hormones and growth factors
(adipocytokines) inducing carcinogenesis. Varying levels of adipocytokines, including leptin and
adiponectin, can promote the development of metabolic disorders such as cancer and diabetes.
Therefore the most effective treatment is to target the molecular pathways that link obesity to
cancer. Genistein is known for its anti–cancer effects and inhibition of adipocyte enlargement and
differentiation. This can serve as a targeted therapeutic drug that can concurrently treat cancer and
obesity. This review will cover four parts to support the promising effects of genistein: obesity and
cancer, dietary anticancer agents, clinical significance, and future directions. Keywords – genistein,
adipocytes, carcinogenesis, hormones, treatment (10 Italic) I. INTRODUCTION (11 BOLD)
Industrialized societies have witnessed

Stem Cells For Bone Regeneration
Bone marrow derived cells are the most extensively researched stem cells for bone regeneration
owing to their capacity to differentiate into an osteoblastic lineage in the presence of appropriate
growth factors as well as regenerate bone efficiently in vivo[44]. Upon isolation from the bone
marrow, these stem cells are characterized. These cells are generally easy to isolate and passage[45].
However, relatively low abundance of BM–MSCs necessitates extensive in vitro expansion, which
diminishes the posttranslational survival and immunomodulatory properties of BM–MSCs while
posing regulatory and logistic challenges[46]. Additionally, the age and health status of the donor is
of critical importance with regard to obtaining these cells. In the mid–1960's, Friedenstein et al
reviewed a series of experiments and hypothesized that BMSC could be co–isolated in vitro
alongside hematopoietic cells [47; 48]. BMSC are generally referred to as MSCs, however, it should
be noted that Bone marrow usually consists of stromal cells which do not necessarily give rise to
MSCs [49]. Nevertheless, upon isolation, the purified bmsc are referred to as msc as they abide by
the 2006 criteria and exhibit both plasticity and the ability to differentiate into chondrocytes,
osteocytes, and adipocytes in vitro and in vivo[50]. In 1997, komori et al proposed that marrow
stromal cells express the master osteogenic transcription factor, runt–related transcription factor 2
(Runx2) and

Fat Disorders: The Role Of Fat In The Human Body
The human body has a lot of fat in it. They can be stored in specialized cells called adipocytes.Their
main function is to fill energy reserves in the body. These cells accumulate energy in the form of
lipids which are released back to the body when energy is needed.adipocytes are basically small
accumulations of fat that are encased by fibrous connective tissue between muscle and the dermis
(deep layer of skin). When these adipocytes begin to store more energy (fat) than is used by the
body they grow bigger and body fat begins to accumulate. Fatty acids and glycerol are converted
into triacylglycerols which are stored within the adipocytes primarily as an energy store. When
energy is required to do work such as anabolism, triacylglycerols ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Fat in normal women represents between 18% and 20% of body weight, whereas in men it
represents only 10% to 15%. The reason for this difference is that women at some point in their lives
may nourish a fetus and then a baby from their own reserves. So women have to stock energy in the
form of fat in anticipation of future pregnancies. Females tend to store fat on the hips, thighs and
buttocks, giving them more of a pear shape. This female pattern is also called gynoid, or gluteal–
femoral pattern obesity.The body fat percentage in a healthy, active, athletic woman ranges between
18% and 20%.For most average women who are less active the body fat percentage is much higher.
Fat is stored deep in the body cavities, and directly beneath the skin called subcutaneous fat. Men
find fat in fat cells from the man's back, flanks, and stomach. Men collect most weight the waist and
over the ab muscles. Our bodies need these fat reserves as energy sources and insulation as well as
to cushion our internal organs. At no time should an individual attempt to rid their body completely
of

Over Nutrition And Obesity In Australia
Though many are suffering from malnutrition and anorexia, Australia is becoming a major part of an
epidemic that is impacting mass number of people globally. Obesity. In every three Australians, 2
will be obese. Obesity, though preventable, is very damaging to the society due to the health aspects
and societal impacts. The shocking figures are only expected to increase, unless there are immediate
changes applied to the current diet and lifestyle habits. Furthermore, as a chain affect, the risk of
developing other diseases increases drastically.
The effect of over nutrition and obesity on the human body
Obesity is mainly caused by poor diet, consisting of high calorie and/or over nutritious foods.
Protein, carbohydrate and fats, classified ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Liver produces bile, which helps to decompose lipid molecules, during digestion. It also produces
certain proteins and cholesterol that are needed in the blood plasma, and that carry fats around the
body. The liver stores iron, so if the liver is negatively impacted, it can lead to iron deficiency
(Stanford Children's Health 2015). Furthermore, it is vital is removing toxin from the body, so if the
liver can't function properly, the toxins will be left in the body, causing further damage. It also
regulates blood clotting, so without the liver, the body won't be able to stop bleeding in an injury,
and blood may clot in arteries, which will lead to heart attack (Stanford Children's Health

Biochemistry 208.5.5
Desiree Schmitt
208.5.5
In humans/animals, the main cells that store fat for energy are adipocytes. These fat cells are found
under the skin, in the abdominal cavity and surround major organs. The fatty tissue is the body's
main means of storing energy for long periods of time. Lipids, like triglycerides are stored in the
adipocytes until ready to be used by the body for energy. Fat is broken down through metabolism in
the mitochondria of the cell. The triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty acids. The
glycerol can be easily converted to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis. From
there it can go through the Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain to make ATP. The 3 fatty acids
can be broken ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Every cell membrane incorporates a fluid mosaic model. The "mosaic" of protein molecules
embedded in a lipid bilayer. It's fluid as most proteins and lipid molecules drift through it. The
membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with various proteins. The proteins help to
get polar/hydrophilic molecules through the plasma membrane. Polar molecules have difficulty
passing thru the hydrophilic membrane. Nonpolar molecules however, easily pass thru. The proteins
can be integral proteins, meaning they go all the way through the lipid bilayer or peripheral proteins
that sit on the hydrophilic outer layer and wait for something to happen. The layers are somewhat
fluid, allowing the proteins to move across them. See diagram below.
No fat diets can actually do more harm than good. The body needs moderation of all energy
producing macronutrients; fats, carbohydrates and proteins. By not eating any fat, the body starts to
utilize the fats stored in the body, thus depleting the stores and people lose weight. However, once
those stores are gone, the good fats or HDL's, are no longer able to filter out the bad cholesterol.
This can lead to increased cholesterol levels in the blood and heart disease. A no fat diet also causes
poor vitamin absorption of the necessary fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Fats transport those
vitamins from the liver to various parts of the body.
Sanders, J.

Pathogenesis Of Lipodystrophy
Lipodystrophy is a disorder of fat metabolism that may be clinically evident as adipose tissue
accumulation (eg, in intraabdominal, dorsocervical, or breast tissues, and lipomas), lipoatrophy (loss
of fat mass, eg, of the face, limbs, buttocks), and metabolic abnormalities (eg, insulin resistance,
diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, or lactic acidemia). The pathogenesis of lipodystrophy in
HIV–1–infected patients is multifactorial and includes effects of antiretroviral therapy, HIV–1 itself,
and genetics and other host factors. Evidence suggests that the nucleoside analogue, reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (nRTIs) stavudine, didanosine, and zidovudine may cause mitochondrial
toxicity by inhibiting mitochondrial DNA polymerase in fat and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
By comparison, heterozygous patients with HFE187C/G had a 0.2–kg and 6.1% increase in limb fat,
with 6 (26%) of 23 patients having clinical lipoatrophy (P < .05 for all comparisons). Didanosine,
which is now used infrequently, has been clearly associated with the occurrence of clinical

Compare And Contrast The Mobilisation Of Fats And...
The percentage of energy supplied for the body's energy needs by fats and carbohydrates varies at 0
minutes, 5 minutes and after 45 minutes of a marathon. The biochemical events that occur at these
time points will be evaluated in terms of the mobilisation of fats and carbohydrates, the pathways
each takes to produce energy and their yield in producing Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Fats and carbohydrates differ in their structure, energy yield and the way they are stored in the body.
For these reasons, they are not used equally by the body; and one predominates over the other at
different times in a marathon. The structure of fats consist of one glycerol molecule bound to three
fatty acid chains via ester bonds, and are termed triglycerides. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Glucagon acts on the liver and muscles to initiate glycogenolysis. Glycogen phosphorylase
phosphorylates a terminal glucose molecule to form glucose 1–phosphate (G1P) and depletes ATP to
ADP, and is exergonic. Phosphoglucomutase converts G1P to glucose 6–phosphate (G6P). In
muscles G6P would enter the glycolytic pathway, however the liver must release glucose into the
blood. G6P enters the endoplasmic reticulum of liver cells and is converted to glucose by glucose–
6–phosphatase, after which it is released into the blood for adsorption by other cells. The glycolytic
pathway consists of 10 steps divided into 2 phases: preparatory and pay–off. Step 1 is the
phosphorylation (ATP to ADP) of glucose to G6P by hexokinase and Mg2+ as a co–factor, ΔG'˚=–
16.7 KJ/mol (exothermic). In step 2 G6P is converted to fructose 6–phosphate by phosphohexose
isomerase and Mg2+, the ration is endergonic (ΔG'˚=1.7KJ/mol). Fructose 1,6–biphosphate is
produced from the phosphorylation of fructose 6–phosphate by phosphofructokinase–1 and Mg2+ in
step 3. This reaction is exergonic due to ATP hydrolysis (ΔG'˚=14.2KJ/mol) and is irreversible. In
step 4 fructose 1,6–biphosphate is cleaved by aldolase to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate in an endergonic reaction (ΔG'˚=23.8KJ/mol). In step 5
dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted to glyceraldehyde 3–phosphate by triose

Macrohih2a1 Case Study
MacroH2A1.1–overexpressing cells display ameliorated glucose metabolism, 214 reduced
expression of lipogenic genes and fatty acid content (40). These associative 215 studies indicate a
possible conserved involvement of macroH2A1 isoforms, in lipid 216 metabolism. A number of
mechanistic studies using animal have explored this 217 possibility, yielding conflicting outcomes
(Table II). Two mouse models with a 218 macroH2A1 knockout have been reported under a
standard diet feeding. In the first 219 model, generated in the pure C57Bl/6J background,
developmental changes in 220 macroH2A1–mediated gene regulation were observed (42): up–
regulation of 221 lipogenic genes was detected in the liver of the knockout mice (42), which
displayed 222 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The changes in lipogenic gene expression 226 have subsequently been associated with differential
physical occupancy of the gene 227 body by macroH2A1 (42, 43). In the second model, knockout of
macroH2A1 in a 228 mixed background led to a variable hepatic lipid accumulation in 50% of the
229 females (44). In this model, the X–linked thyroxine–binding globulin (Tbg) gene was 230 found
to be upregulated in steatotic livers. Tbg is the main carrier of the thyroid 231 hormone T4
(thyroxine), a major regulator of energy metabolism, which could be 232 responsible for the
enhanced fat accumulation. Enrichment of macroH2A1 at the 233 Tbg promoter in female animals
indicated that increased Tbg expression in 234 macroH2A1–knockout mice could be a direct
consequence of the absence of this 235 histone (44). In contrast, our analysis of the in vivo role of
macroH2A1 in response to 236 nutritional excess led us to discover that genetic eviction of
macroH2A1 confers 237 protection against high fat diet–induced obesity and metabolic
derangements in 238 mice (45). Together, these mice studies did not address the role of the single
239 macroH2A1 isoforms; moreover if these histone variants can impact energy 240 turnover in
extra–hepatic depots, was unknown until recently. In the skeletal 241

Lipoma
Abstract:
Lipomas represent about 1 to 4% of all neoplasms of the oral cavity. They mostly present as slow
growing, asymptomatic lesions with a characteristic yellowish colour soft and doughy feel. 0ral
lipomas affect predominantly the buccal mucosa, floor of mouth, tongue and lips. Although
relatively common, intraoral lipomas and its variants are seen in the literature. In the present case,
lesion was excised surgically with the intra–oral approach and it did not showed any recurrence.
Introduction
The foremost description of oral lipomas was first reported by Roux in 1848 in a review of alveolar
masses. He referred lipoma as a "yellow epulis.1 Lipomas are common benign soft tissue neoplasms
composed of mature white adipocytes and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Those which occur in the maxillofacial region usually arise late in life, presumed to be neoplasm of
adipocyte. Most lipomas have chromosomal aberrations such as translocation involving 12q13–
15,interstitial deletion of 13q and rearrangement involving 6p21–23. Chop gene is involved in
adipocytic differentiation.9
Surgical excision is the main stay of treatment, with a recurrence rate of 5%.Recurrence is reduced
by wide surgical excision with preservation of surrounding structures. Wide surgical excision of
total tumour tissues was the treatment for these

Product Description Of Rat And Monkey Based Experiments Essay
Adipotide: Product Description
Adipotide is a synthetic peptide that possesses anti–obesity properties. this peptide particularly
targets and destroys specific proteins that constitute the surface of blood vessels that support white
fat (adipose) tissue hence interfering with the supply of blood to the fat cells and resulting in their
adoptosis (reabsorption and metabolization). Adipotide was initially referred to as Prohibitin–TP01
(Prohibitin–Targeting Peptide 1). It is a peptidomimetic that was synthesized by American scientists
as a potential therapeutic drug for obesity and its amino acid sequence is CKGGRAKDC–GG–
D(KLAKLAK)2. Adipotide has a molecular formula of C111H204N36O28S2. Peptidomimetics are
tiny protein like chains that imitate peptides. It is an experimental drug for weight loss. It was
developed in a way that enables it to bind to two receptors, prohibitin and ANXA2 which are found
in blood vessels that support white adipose tissue. In rat and monkey based experiments, Adipotide
has been shown to bring about rapid weight loss in both mice and rhesus monkeys. In general,
Adipotide has been observed to bring about weight loss by reducing fat tissue especially in the
abdominal region), rapid metabolic changes, and decreased food intake. Product History
Adipotide was first synthesized by Dr.Wadih Arap and Renata Pasqualini in their efforts to develop
a drug with therapeutic properties in the treatment of cancer. The researchers specifically designed
this

Adipocytes Vs Women
Have you ever wondered where fats are stored? The answer is in cells called Adipocytes. Adipocytes
are also known as either lipocytes, or fat cells. There are two types of adipocytes, these are white
and brown. The white tissue, are considered of one large lipid droplet. The brown tissue, are
composed of numerous small lipid droplets. Have you ever wondered who carries more fat, men or
women? Turns out, that women carry more than men. Women bodies are considered of 18–20
percent fat, as men are considered of 10–15 percent fat. This is because of two simple reasons. The
first reason is because of exercise. Typically, men get more exercise than women. Therefore, it is
easier for men to burn of fat that women. For example, a man may be in charge

3T3
Morphology and Lipid Analysis of 3T3–L1 cells pre and post differentiation
Erin Kim
1
Abstract
This report will look at the morphology of 3T3–L1 cells pre and post differentiation and the percent
lipid in our adipocytes after differentiation. The analysis of cell morphology is important to study
cell behaviour such as the uptake of nutrients [1]. Three different plates of 3T3–L1 cells were
examined. 2 of the plates were grown then differentiated into adipocytes. After differentiation, these
cells were fixed with formalin then one was stained with Oil Red O. The last plate was grown to
confluency, but did not undergo differentiation before fixing with formalin. After imaging these cells
using a fluorescence microscope, the images were analyzed with the Image J software. Image J
analyzed the shape index of the cell our results showed the adipocytes to have a shape index of
0.888±0.030 in comparison to than the undifferentiated fibroblasts, which had a shape index of
0.335±0.082. The Shape index measures how round or elongated a cell is. The closer the shape
index is to 1, the rounder the cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These 3T3–L1 cells are capable of differentiating from fibroblasts into adipocytes under certain
conditions. 3T3–L1 cells are classified as Biosafety Level 1 [2]. 3T3–L1 cells divide rapidly until
they reach 100 percent confluency, which primes them to differentiate into adipocytes. The purpose
of this study was to examine 3T3–L1 cells before and after differentiation to compare their
morphology and lipid content.
1
Before staining the differentiated cells, they were fixed using formalin (cross–linking) to preserve
the cell structure. By staining the cells with Oil Red O, we were able to stain the lipid within the
cell, which increases the contrast of a cell and makes it easier to visualize the lipid content within
each cell

Physiological Effects Of Obesity
Research concentrated on both the physiological causes and the consequences of prolonged
adiposity has recently expanded as a result of the rising prevalence of obesity and related diseases.
New studies show that understanding the mechanisms of specific immune cells in adipose tissue, the
tissue responsible for storing excess fat, may be the key to understanding and treating the modern
obesity epidemic. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and their secreted type 2 cytokines have
been strongly linked to the metabolic regulation of adipose tissue and promotion of thermogenesis,
however the specific mechanisms of this pathway are unknown. The research presented here
outlines the examination of how ILC2s and related immune cells are ... Show more content on
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Adipose tissue is the specialized connective tissue which stores energy as fat, as well as being
responsible for generating heat within the body (9). The two types of adipose tissue, white adipose
tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), have distinct roles in fat storage and obesity. BAT is
a major source of thermogenesis, and its development has been implicated in suppressing diet
induced obesity (9). The brown adipocytes which make–up BAT contain many mitochondria and
express high levels of uncoupling protein–1 (UCP1), a protein which generates heat through
uncoupling of the respiratory chain and substrate oxidation (11). WAT performs the anabolic role of
storing energy, and has been linked to diseases such as type 2 diabetes in states of prolonged obesity
(1,9). More recently however, an additional subcategory of adipocytes has been discovered, known
as beige or brite (brown in white) adipocytes. These cells are similar to brown adipocytes as they
express high levels of UCP1 and stimulate thermogenesis, however their presence in WAT can
induce lipolysis of WAT stored fat (7,17). This WAT browning pathway is an area of active research,
as the energy expenditure presents a potential strategy for treating obesity. The differentiation of
brite adipocytes is unknown however, as

Lab Report
Abstract:
Tissue regeneration through cell differentiation from one cell type to another is a phenomenon
occurs in some species of fish and amphibians, however, mammals are incapable of reprogramming
one cell lineage to achieve a similar result. Specifically, in human and mouse wound healing
procedure normally generate scar with high collagen deposition, regenerated skin which lacks some
features such as hair follicle and cutaneous fat. A recent study shows that a large skin wound in a
mouse model is capable of regenerating hair follicles under the control of the Wnt and fibroblast
growth factor (FGF) pathways. (1) In this article, Plikus et. al. discovered in the same mouse model;
during wound healing process, cutaneous fat can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some lineage analysis also showed that the growing follicles arise from epithelial cells outside of
the hair follicle stem cell line, which supports the idea that epidermal cells in the wound assume a
hair follicle stem cell phenotype. Ito et. al. also demonstrated that inhibition of Wnt signaling after
re–epithelialization overturn this follicle generation process during wound healing, however, by
overexpressing Wnt ligand in the epidermis, they increased the number of regenerated follicles.
Another aspect of wound healing is the adipocyte regeneration, in this project focus was to
understand the molecular mechanism behind adipocyte regeneration, these mechanisms can
ultimately trigger bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and then activate of adipocyte
transcription factors expressed during development. Also, where these adipocytes will be formed
during regeneration, and how phenotypically they are different from normal adipocyte tissue.
Materials and methods: Animal care protocol: all in–vivo experiments executed according to animal
care protocol at University of California and University of Pennsylvania.
Phenotype quantification methodology. Wounds were stained with Oil Red O and the number of
regenerated hair follicles

Insulin: Hormone Levels In The Body
Insulin referred to as hormone is secreted using the pancreas which control glucose levels in the
blood. Without insulin, cells cannot use the energy from glucose to perform the numerous functions
within the body. The main metabolic fuel for cell utilization used in energy production are glucose
and fatty acids. In addition, equilibrium between food intake and energy expenditure may depend on
energy homeostasis and metabolism. However, glucose is the most important fuel with a normal
level ranging from 4–3–6.5mmol/l needed for cell function and is controlled by multifaceted system
between the pancreas, liver, adipose tissue, muscle and brain. Even though metabolism and nutrition
are controlled by means of adipocyte derived pattern of life,

The Case Of Vitro Human Blood
Thrombosis and Leptin The manifestation of P–selection in the case of vitro human platelets is
increased by the Leptin. Fascinatingly, the augmentation of the results of APD–induced combination
from the Leptin mitigated in the platelets found from the overweight or the obese patients in
comparison to the normal–weight patients. However, other studies showed no effect of Leptin at
concentration levels of up to 500 ng/mL from obese and other normal weight subjects. Results from
44 women diagnosed with obesity, the plasma containing Leptin has a correlation with the excretion
of urinary 11–dehydrothromboxane B2. Restrictions of caloric values reduces the levels of Leptin
and the platelet activity is reduced in the process. This is evident from the reflection of decrease in
the levels of P–selectin concentration in the plasma. There is also a positive correlation of plasma
Leptin and the concentrations of the plasminogen activator inhibitor–1 expressed in the men with
the ischemic heart diseases. From professional follow–up, it was observed that Leptin correlated
significantly with the von Willebrand and fibrinogen factor (Reaven, 2011). Studies done in Swedish
populations showed that there is a positive association of Leptin with the plasma fibrinogen and it
also expresses an inverse relationship with the plasminogen activator found in tissues and its
concentration in plasma (Townsend, 2012). An inverse correlation between the 2 inhibitors of
coagulation and Leptin, the

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