1. The document discusses IUPAC naming conventions for organic compounds. It provides rules for determining names based on functional groups, carbon chain length, and substituents.
2. The key steps are identifying the functional group to determine the suffix, finding the longest carbon chain to determine the prefix, numbering the carbons, and noting any branches or substituents.
3. Names are combined in a systematic way by listing substituents followed by the prefix and suffix to unambiguously name each compound.
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY -- KHUSH AHUJAKhushAhuja
In chemical nomenclature, the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended[1] by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is published in the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (informally called the Blue Book). Ideally, every possible organic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous structural formula can be created. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry.
To avoid long and tedious names in normal communication, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice, except when it is necessary to give an unambiguous and absolute definition to a compound. IUPAC names can sometimes be simpler than older names, as with ethanol, instead of ethyl alcohol. For relatively simple molecules they can be more easily understood than non-systematic names, which must be learnt or looked over. However, the common or trivial name is often substantially shorter and clearer, and so preferred. These non-systematic names are often derived from an original source of the compound. In addition, very long names may be less clear than structural formula.
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NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY -- KHUSH AHUJAKhushAhuja
In chemical nomenclature, the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended[1] by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is published in the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (informally called the Blue Book). Ideally, every possible organic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous structural formula can be created. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry.
To avoid long and tedious names in normal communication, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice, except when it is necessary to give an unambiguous and absolute definition to a compound. IUPAC names can sometimes be simpler than older names, as with ethanol, instead of ethyl alcohol. For relatively simple molecules they can be more easily understood than non-systematic names, which must be learnt or looked over. However, the common or trivial name is often substantially shorter and clearer, and so preferred. These non-systematic names are often derived from an original source of the compound. In addition, very long names may be less clear than structural formula.
APEX INSTITUTE was conceptualized in May 2008, keeping in view the dreams of young students by the vision & toil of Er. Shahid Iqbal. We had a very humble beginning as an institute for IIT-JEE / Medical, with a vision to provide an ideal launch pad for serious JEE students . We actually started to make a difference in the way students think and approach problems. We started to develop ways to enhance students IQ. We started to leave an indelible mark on the students who have undergone APEX training. That is why APEX INSTITUTE is very well known of its quality of education
The lecture is devoted to newbies in chemistry eager to learn the basics of nomenclature. The tips given re easy and can be practiced to get perfection.
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
The lecture is devoted to newbies in chemistry eager to learn the basics of nomenclature. The tips given re easy and can be practiced to get perfection.
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
IUPAC Nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
Incineration is the method of choice for treating large volumes of infectious waste, animal carcasses, and contaminated bedding materials. Because incinerators usually are located some distance from the laboratory, additional precautions for handling and packaging of infectious waste are necessary.
Types of Biomedical Waste Disposal
Autoclaving. The process of autoclaving involves steam sterilization. ...
Incineration. The major benefits of incineration are that it is quick, easy, and simple. ...
Chemicals. When it comes to liquid waste, a common biomedical waste disposal method can be chemical disinfection. ...
Microwaving.
Prokaryotes are always unicellular, while eukaryotes are often multi-celled organisms. Additionally, eukaryotic cells are more than 100 to 10,000 times larger than prokaryotic cells and are much more complex. The DNA in eukaryotes is stored within the nucleus, while DNA is stored in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.pptxAmjad Afridi
Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-bound organelles not found in prokaryotic cells.
These include the mitochondria (convert food energy into adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, to power biochemical reactions); rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum ,golgi complex and in the case of plant cells, chloroplasts
All of these organelles are located in the eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi.
The word 'myco' is derived from the Greek word mýkēs meaning “mushroom, fungus”.
Heinrich Anton de Bary is the father of Mycology.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include such as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. These organisms are classified under kingdom fungi.
Fungi are diverse and widespread.
Fungi metabolism consists on a series of reactions (biochemical reactions) constantly occurring inside the cells to keep it alive and active and in the results biosynthesis of a huge number of compounds.
These compounds area usually divided into primary and secondary metabolites.
Primary metabolism is common to several species and usually produces compounds with the function of assuring fungi growth and development.
Primary metabolites are involved in the growth, development, and reproduction of organisms.
The primary metabolites consist of vitamins, amino acids, nucleosides and organic acids
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that causes staphylococcal food poisoning, a form of gastroenteritis with rapid onset of symptoms. S. aureus is commonly found in the environment (soil, water and air) and is also found in the nose and on the skin of humans.
Communicable diseases are illnesses that spread from one person to another or from an animal to a person, or from a surface or a food. Diseases can be transmitted during air travel through: direct contact with a sick person. respiratory droplet spread from a sick person sneezing or coughing.
Host-Parasite relationship is the extreme case of animal association, in which both partners influence each others life by affecting each others metabolism and behaviour using different adaptive mechanisms in order to ensure their survival.
Bacteria have their own enzymes for
1. Cell wall formation
2. Protein synthesis
3. DNA replication
4. RNA synthesis
5. Synthesis of essential metabolites
Infections spread from animals to human are called zoonotic infections.
The term zoonos is’ Derived from the Greek
ZOON (animals) and NOSES (diseases)
Pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals cause more than 60% of infectious diseases in man.
Ozone (O3) is a molecule made up of three atoms of oxygen (O), and very reactive gas.
Bluish gas that harmful to breathe.
Is mostly found in the stratosphere, where it protects us from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Although it represents only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere, ozone is essential for life on Earth.
Ozone in the stratosphere— a layer of the atmosphere between 15 and 50 kilometers (10 and 31 miles) above us—acts as a shield to protect Earth’s surface from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
H: Infects only Human beings
I: Immunodeficiency Virus weakness the Immune system and increases the risk of infections
V: Virus that attacks the body and finally kills the body’s immune system
Tuberculosis is a communicable chronic granulomatous disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , where the center of the granuloma is Caseous necrosis
It usually involves the lungs but may affect any organ or tissue in the body
Airborne spread of droplet nuclei
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
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Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
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solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
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to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
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As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
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1. 1
IUPAC Naming and Formulae
What is IUPAC naming?
In order to give compounds a name, certain rules must be followed. When naming organic
compounds, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature
(naming scheme) is used. This is to give consistency to the names. It also enables every
compound to have a unique name, which is not possible with the common names used (for
example in industry). We will first look at some of the steps that need to be followed when
naming a compound, and then try to apply these rules to some specific examples.
A good general rule to follow is to start at the end (the suffix) and work backwards (from right to
left) in the name.
Molecules can contain both double or triple bonds and other functional groups (e.g. an alkene
and an alcohol functional group in one molecule - propenol). However, all molecules explored in
this book will contain only single carbon-carbon bonds when combined with other functional
groups.
1. Recognize the functional group in the compound. This will determine the suffix of the
name.
Functional group suffix
alkane -ane
alkene -ene
alkyne -yne
alcohol -ol
aldehyde -al
ketone -one
carboxylic acid -oic acid
ester -oate
The suffix associated with various functional groups.
2. 2
Find the longest continuous carbon chain that contains the functional group (it won't always be
a straight chain) and count the number of carbon atoms in this chain. This number will determine
the prefix (the beginning) of the compound's name
Carbon atoms Prefix
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-
Table 4.6: The prefix of a compound's name is determined by the number of carbon atoms in the
longest chain that contains the functional group.
2. Number the carbons in the longest carbon chain (Important: If the molecule is not an
alkane (i.e. has a functional group) you need to start numbering so that the functional group is on
the carbon with the lowest possible number). Start with the carbon at the end closest to the
functional group.
3. Look for any branched groups:
Name them by counting the number of carbon atoms in the branched group and
these groups will all end in -yl.
Note the position of the group on the main carbon chain. If there is more than one
of the same type of branched group then both numbers must be listed (e.g. 2,4 -) and one of the
prefixes listed in must be used. Important: If the molecule is an alkane the branched group
must be on the carbon with the lowest possible number.
The branched groups must be listed before the name of the main chain in
alphabetical order (ignoring di/tri/tetra).
If there are no branched groups this step can be ignored.
3. 3
Number prefix
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
Prefixes for multiple substituents with the same name. These apply to multiple functional groups
as well.
4. For the alkyl halides the halogen atom is treated in much the same way as branched
groups:
To name them take the name of the halogen atom (e.g. iodine) and replace the -
ine with -o (e.g. iodo).
Halogen name
fluorine fluoro
chlorine chloro
bromine bromo
iodine iodo
Naming halogen atoms in organic molecules.
Give the halogen atom a number to show its position on the carbon chain. If there
is more than one halogen atom the numbers should be listed and a prefix should be used (e.g.
3,4-diiodo- or 1,2,2-trichloro-).
The halogen atoms must be listed before the name of the main chain in
alphabetical order (ignore di/tri/tetra).
If there are no halogen atoms this step can be ignored.
5. Combine the elements of the name into a single word in the following order:
branched groups/halogen atoms in alphabetical order (ignoring prefixes)
prefix of main chain
name ending according to the functional group and its position on the longest
carbon chain.
4. 4
Naming hydrocarbons
Naming alkanes
The suffix for an alkane is -ane.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1: NAMING THE ALKANES
Give the IUPAC name for the following compound:
Note: The numbers attached to the carbon atoms would not normally be shown. The carbon
atoms have been numbered to help you to name the compound.
Identify the functional group
The compound is a hydrocarbon with single bonds between the carbon atoms. It is an alkane and
will have a suffix of -ane.
Find the longest carbon chain
There are four carbon atoms in the longest chain. The prefix of the compound will be but-.
Number the carbon atoms in the longest chain
The numbering has been done for you here.
Look for any branched group, name them and give their position on the carbon chain
There are no branched groups in this compound.
5. 5
Combine the elements of the name into a single word
The name of the compound is butane.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2: NAMING THE ALKANES
Give the IUPAC name for the following compound:
Identify the functional group
The compound is a hydrocarbon with single bonds between the carbon atoms. It is an alkane and
will have the suffix -ane.
Find the longest carbon chain
There are three carbon atoms in the longest chain. The prefix for this compound is prop-.
Number the carbons in the carbon chain
If we start at the carbon on the left, we can number the atoms as shown in red (left). If we start at
the carbon on the right, we can number the atoms as shown in blue (right).
6. 6
Look for any branched groups, name them and give their position on the carbon chain
There is a branched group attached to the second carbon atom. In this case the methyl group is
on carbon 2 regardless of which side you number the longest chain from.
This group has the formula (text{CH}_{3}), which is methane without a hydrogen atom.
However, because it is not part of the main chain, it is given the suffix -yl (i.e. methyl). The
position of the methyl group comes just before its name (see the next step).
Combine the elements of the compound's name into a single word in the order of branched
group; prefix; name ending according to the functional group
The compound's name is 2-methylpropane.