This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. It then discusses the necessity of irrigation due to insufficient or uneven rainfall. Benefits include increased crop yields and economic development, while ill effects can include rising water tables and loss of land. The document classifies irrigation systems and projects in India as major, medium or minor. It also examines soil-water relationships, including water holding capacity, field capacity, and wilting point.
The document discusses several topics related to water and irrigation engineering:
- 80% of the human body is made of water and while the earth has abundant water, only a small portion is available for human consumption due to issues of distribution and quality.
- Over 1 billion people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water, with Africa most affected in both percentage and total population without access.
- Irrigation engineering involves planning, designing, constructing, operating and managing irrigation systems to artificially apply water to land for agriculture. It is crucial for crop growth, food security and development in dry areas.
This document provides information about an irrigation engineering course taught by Engr. Ghulam Murtaza. It includes details about the instructor, course contents, textbooks, and introductory lectures. The course covers topics such as irrigation systems in Pakistan, water resources, types of irrigation, techniques of water distribution, the Indus Water Treaty, and features of the major rivers including the Sutlej, Ravi, and Chenab rivers.
Topics:
1, Introduction to Irrigation
2. Methods of Irrigation
3. Indian Agricultural Soils
4. Methods of Improving Soil Fertility & Crop Rotation
5. Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
6. Duty and Delta
7. Depth and Frequency of Irrigation
8. Irrigation Efficiency and Water Logging
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It defines irrigation as applying water to soil to supply moisture for plant growth. The history section notes irrigation has been used in agriculture for over 5,000 years. It describes different types of irrigation systems including surface, localized drip, sprinkler and sub-irrigation. Localized systems apply water directly to plants. Drip irrigation delivers water drop by drop near roots. Sprinkler systems use overhead sprinklers. The document also discusses irrigation development in India and Gujarat's Sardar Sarovar Dam, a large gravity dam project that irrigates millions of hectares.
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land to assist in growing crops. The key aspects of irrigation management include regulating water resources efficiently based on soil properties, crop water needs, climate, and ensuring equitable distribution. Proper irrigation management is important for maximizing agricultural output, conserving water resources, and protecting the environment. India's irrigation development has increased the gross irrigated area from 22.5 million hectares in the 1950s to over 75 million hectares currently through successive five-year plans.
Introduction to irrigation and drainageMulenge Peter
Irrigation is any process other than natural precipitation, which supplies water artificially to the soil to make up the deficiency of moisture under natural conditions for the profitable growth of crops, which otherwise would not be assured.
The irrigation process involves investigation, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of structures and channels for the proper conveyance of water from the source to the point of application.
Introduction
Necessity and scope of irrigation
Engineering - benefits and ill effects of irrigation
Irrigation development in India
Classification and types of irrigation systems
Soil-water plant relationship and Type of soil
Water requirements of crop and its Important terminology
Duty delta and base period and Irrigation efficiencies
Method of measuring irrigation water
References
This document discusses watershed management and development in Karnataka, India. It begins with introducing watersheds and their importance. It then covers principles of watershed management, factors affecting it, common practices used, and different types of approaches. The document also discusses the need for watershed management in Karnataka due to issues like drought and soil erosion. It provides examples of specific watershed development programs and case studies in Karnataka. In conclusion, it emphasizes that watershed management is essential for sustainable land and water resource management.
The document discusses several topics related to water and irrigation engineering:
- 80% of the human body is made of water and while the earth has abundant water, only a small portion is available for human consumption due to issues of distribution and quality.
- Over 1 billion people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water, with Africa most affected in both percentage and total population without access.
- Irrigation engineering involves planning, designing, constructing, operating and managing irrigation systems to artificially apply water to land for agriculture. It is crucial for crop growth, food security and development in dry areas.
This document provides information about an irrigation engineering course taught by Engr. Ghulam Murtaza. It includes details about the instructor, course contents, textbooks, and introductory lectures. The course covers topics such as irrigation systems in Pakistan, water resources, types of irrigation, techniques of water distribution, the Indus Water Treaty, and features of the major rivers including the Sutlej, Ravi, and Chenab rivers.
Topics:
1, Introduction to Irrigation
2. Methods of Irrigation
3. Indian Agricultural Soils
4. Methods of Improving Soil Fertility & Crop Rotation
5. Soil-Water-Plant Relationship
6. Duty and Delta
7. Depth and Frequency of Irrigation
8. Irrigation Efficiency and Water Logging
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It defines irrigation as applying water to soil to supply moisture for plant growth. The history section notes irrigation has been used in agriculture for over 5,000 years. It describes different types of irrigation systems including surface, localized drip, sprinkler and sub-irrigation. Localized systems apply water directly to plants. Drip irrigation delivers water drop by drop near roots. Sprinkler systems use overhead sprinklers. The document also discusses irrigation development in India and Gujarat's Sardar Sarovar Dam, a large gravity dam project that irrigates millions of hectares.
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land to assist in growing crops. The key aspects of irrigation management include regulating water resources efficiently based on soil properties, crop water needs, climate, and ensuring equitable distribution. Proper irrigation management is important for maximizing agricultural output, conserving water resources, and protecting the environment. India's irrigation development has increased the gross irrigated area from 22.5 million hectares in the 1950s to over 75 million hectares currently through successive five-year plans.
Introduction to irrigation and drainageMulenge Peter
Irrigation is any process other than natural precipitation, which supplies water artificially to the soil to make up the deficiency of moisture under natural conditions for the profitable growth of crops, which otherwise would not be assured.
The irrigation process involves investigation, planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of structures and channels for the proper conveyance of water from the source to the point of application.
Introduction
Necessity and scope of irrigation
Engineering - benefits and ill effects of irrigation
Irrigation development in India
Classification and types of irrigation systems
Soil-water plant relationship and Type of soil
Water requirements of crop and its Important terminology
Duty delta and base period and Irrigation efficiencies
Method of measuring irrigation water
References
This document discusses watershed management and development in Karnataka, India. It begins with introducing watersheds and their importance. It then covers principles of watershed management, factors affecting it, common practices used, and different types of approaches. The document also discusses the need for watershed management in Karnataka due to issues like drought and soil erosion. It provides examples of specific watershed development programs and case studies in Karnataka. In conclusion, it emphasizes that watershed management is essential for sustainable land and water resource management.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill-effects. It covers types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, irrigation development in India, and key concepts like duty and delta. Engineering, agriculture, and management aspects are described. Factors affecting evapotranspiration and methods to measure it are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of irrigation, including definitions, objectives, necessity, types, and importance. It defines irrigation as supplying water to land through artificial means for crop cultivation. The basic objective is to supplement natural water supply to obtain optimal crop yields. Different types of irrigation systems are described, including flow, lift, flood, sprinkler irrigation. Maintaining soil fertility through practices like crop rotation and addition of manures/fertilizers is also discussed. The document outlines factors that impact the quality of irrigation water such as silt and salt content.
This document discusses integrated watershed management and rainwater harvesting. It covers India's water resources, watershed development and modeling, integrated watershed management approaches, water conservation techniques, and provides a case study of a successful watershed management project in Jhabua, India. The key points are:
1) Integrated watershed management aims to manage water resources in an integrated way across river basins and account for all interests. It involves community participation and addresses social and economic issues.
2) Watershed modeling uses computer models and remote sensing to help plan and manage limited water resources.
3) A case study of Jhabua, India showed how integrated management including water conservation, reforestation, and
1. The document discusses soil-water-plant relationships and various concepts related to how water moves through and is stored in soil.
2. Key concepts covered include the classification of soil water, soil water constants like field capacity and permanent wilting point, and how physical properties of soil like texture and structure influence water movement and retention.
3. Diagrams and equations are provided to illustrate volume and mass relationships of water, solids, and air in soil.
This document discusses irrigation engineering and different irrigation methods. It defines irrigation engineering as the process of supplying water to crops artificially. The main methods discussed are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, and subsurface irrigation. Surface irrigation is the most common worldwide and includes flooding, furrow, and contour farming methods. Flooding involves allowing water to flow freely, furrow uses trenches between rows, and contour farming grows crops across slopes.
Integrated watershed management programme at gunjala village – a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract Integrated watershed management programme was launched in Tamsi mandal of gunjala village by using ‘Four water Concept’. Case study included Questionnaire survey from farmers living in that village, and continuous study over a period of two years. Tamsi village is a tribal village and drought area with very less rainfall. Total project area is 4566 Hac, Project Cost Rs. 547.92 Lakhs. The sanctioned area of Gunjala micro watershed is 710 Hac with a outlay of Rs. 85.20 Lakhs. Out of which the total expenditure incurred was Rs.39.12 Lakhs and constructed structures were LBS, RFDs, PTs, CDs and Plantation. Over two year period, it was observed that, 2 years of period the ground water has been improved in this village and three Bore wells are drilled and they are successful, even during peak summer they could meet their day today activities. The farmer Jadhav Uttam has an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 6300 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Gnan Singh had an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 5,250 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Amber Singh had an additional income of Rs. 13200 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 3,500 per Acre in Red Gram. In the same way, others farmers were also able to generate the benefits from the construction of water storage structures. Total Additional income generated for Seven farmers was Rs. 6, 31000/- in 2011-2012 Cropping Season with construction of Check Dams of Rs.3,24000/- an additional average income per Acre to the farmer is of Rs. 22,500/- and a series of 8 Nos. check dams are constructed on single 3rd order stream which flows Across the 6 Grama Panchayats from ridge to valley. There are 90 farmers cultivating 168 Acre of land who are benefited by getting an additional income of Rs.37,80,000/-. Keywords: Four water Concept, micro watershed, LBS, RFDs, PTs, CDs and Plantation
Ce6703- WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERINGKUMARCIVIL
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering concepts including definitions of irrigation, necessity of irrigation, benefits and demerits of irrigation, base period, duty, delta, irrigation efficiencies, factors affecting water requirements of crops, and consumptive use of water. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to land to create optimal soil moisture for maximizing crop production. It lists factors like insufficient rainfall, uneven rainfall distribution, and improving perennial crops as necessities for irrigation. It also outlines several benefits and potential demerits of irrigation.
The document discusses soil constituents and their proportions, including minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It describes the mineral components of soil in detail, including primary and secondary minerals. It also explains concepts such as soil water potential, classes of soil water, field capacity, permanent wilting point, and available moisture. The water requirements of crops are defined as the total quantity and timing of water needed from sowing to harvest, which can vary by crop and location. Irrigation may be necessary where rainfall is insufficient or unreliable to meet crop water needs.
This document discusses various topics related to irrigation and water conservation, including:
1. The major sources of water for agriculture and consumption are rainfall and snowfall runoff stored in streams, rivers, reservoirs, tanks and ponds or as groundwater.
2. Water has important ecological and physiological roles for plants, such as being a constituent of plant cells, solvent for nutrients, role in photosynthesis, and maintaining turgor pressure.
3. Soil water is classified into hygroscopic, capillary, gravitational, and vapor forms based on how tightly it is bound to soil particles.
4. Factors like soil texture, cover, temperature and wetness influence the infiltration rate at which water
This document discusses artificial groundwater recharge. It begins by defining groundwater and artificial recharge. It then discusses the importance of artificial recharge due to issues like groundwater depletion and drinking water shortages. The document outlines various methods of artificial recharge like spreading methods, recharge shafts, injection wells, and induced recharge. It discusses advantages like increased groundwater availability and disadvantages like potential contamination. Finally, it stresses the importance of groundwater resources and provides recommendations like developing affordable recharge technologies.
the present ppt describes about irrigation methods following from the ancient periods to up to now. the present ppt also describes about sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. it gives an elaborate knowledge on irrigation methods.
1. Watershed management involves integrating land, water, and plant technologies within a drainage area to meet people's needs in a sustainable way.
2. The objectives of watershed management are to conserve soil and water, promote stable crop yields, develop non-arable lands, increase incomes, and restore ecological balance.
3. Key principles of watershed management include using land according to its capabilities, providing vegetative cover, conserving rainwater, draining excess water to storage structures, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem.
This document provides an overview of watershed management in India. It defines a watershed as a geo-hydrological unit that drains to a common point. Watershed management is needed due to declining water availability, as sustainable development requires managing watersheds. Watershed management methods discussed include soil and moisture conservation techniques like terracing and bunding, as well as rainwater harvesting activities like check dams. The benefits of watershed management include increased crop yields, reduced soil erosion, increased availability of surface and groundwater, and improved socio-economic conditions and livelihoods for farmers.
This document provides an introduction to eight tools for watershed protection, summarizing each tool. The first tool discussed is land use planning, outlining how to develop a land use plan to meet water resource goals. Land use planning techniques like zoning are described. The second tool is land conservation, identifying five types of areas to conserve like critical habitats. Land conservation techniques are listed. The third tool discussed is establishing buffers along aquatic corridors, outlining their benefits and management considerations. The fourth tool is better site design to reduce impervious surfaces in developments. Key choices for applying each tool in a watershed are identified.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water holding capacity, field capacity, wilting point, and available soil water as they relate to plant growth. Types of groundwater and levels of water in soils are also explained.
This document is a glossary that defines terms related to water and wastewater treatment. It provides copyright information for the original source of the definitions. The sample entry defines "Abatement" as putting an end to an undesirable or unlawful condition affecting the wastewater collection system, often through issuing notices of violations and corrective actions that must be taken within a compliance period.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill effects, and development of irrigation in India. It describes the course goals to introduce concepts of soil, water, plant interactions and irrigation/drainage design. Key terms are defined, such as culturable command area. Different types of irrigation systems are classified, including flow and lift systems. Soil water relationships are also examined, including classifications of soil water and how water is held in soils.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill-effects. It covers types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, irrigation development in India, and key concepts like duty and delta. Engineering, agriculture, and management aspects are described. Factors affecting evapotranspiration and methods to measure it are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of irrigation, including definitions, objectives, necessity, types, and importance. It defines irrigation as supplying water to land through artificial means for crop cultivation. The basic objective is to supplement natural water supply to obtain optimal crop yields. Different types of irrigation systems are described, including flow, lift, flood, sprinkler irrigation. Maintaining soil fertility through practices like crop rotation and addition of manures/fertilizers is also discussed. The document outlines factors that impact the quality of irrigation water such as silt and salt content.
This document discusses integrated watershed management and rainwater harvesting. It covers India's water resources, watershed development and modeling, integrated watershed management approaches, water conservation techniques, and provides a case study of a successful watershed management project in Jhabua, India. The key points are:
1) Integrated watershed management aims to manage water resources in an integrated way across river basins and account for all interests. It involves community participation and addresses social and economic issues.
2) Watershed modeling uses computer models and remote sensing to help plan and manage limited water resources.
3) A case study of Jhabua, India showed how integrated management including water conservation, reforestation, and
1. The document discusses soil-water-plant relationships and various concepts related to how water moves through and is stored in soil.
2. Key concepts covered include the classification of soil water, soil water constants like field capacity and permanent wilting point, and how physical properties of soil like texture and structure influence water movement and retention.
3. Diagrams and equations are provided to illustrate volume and mass relationships of water, solids, and air in soil.
This document discusses irrigation engineering and different irrigation methods. It defines irrigation engineering as the process of supplying water to crops artificially. The main methods discussed are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, and subsurface irrigation. Surface irrigation is the most common worldwide and includes flooding, furrow, and contour farming methods. Flooding involves allowing water to flow freely, furrow uses trenches between rows, and contour farming grows crops across slopes.
Integrated watershed management programme at gunjala village – a case studyeSAT Journals
Abstract Integrated watershed management programme was launched in Tamsi mandal of gunjala village by using ‘Four water Concept’. Case study included Questionnaire survey from farmers living in that village, and continuous study over a period of two years. Tamsi village is a tribal village and drought area with very less rainfall. Total project area is 4566 Hac, Project Cost Rs. 547.92 Lakhs. The sanctioned area of Gunjala micro watershed is 710 Hac with a outlay of Rs. 85.20 Lakhs. Out of which the total expenditure incurred was Rs.39.12 Lakhs and constructed structures were LBS, RFDs, PTs, CDs and Plantation. Over two year period, it was observed that, 2 years of period the ground water has been improved in this village and three Bore wells are drilled and they are successful, even during peak summer they could meet their day today activities. The farmer Jadhav Uttam has an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 6300 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Gnan Singh had an additional income of Rs. 17600 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 5,250 per Acre in Red Gram. The farmer Amber Singh had an additional income of Rs. 13200 per Acre in cotton and Rs. 3,500 per Acre in Red Gram. In the same way, others farmers were also able to generate the benefits from the construction of water storage structures. Total Additional income generated for Seven farmers was Rs. 6, 31000/- in 2011-2012 Cropping Season with construction of Check Dams of Rs.3,24000/- an additional average income per Acre to the farmer is of Rs. 22,500/- and a series of 8 Nos. check dams are constructed on single 3rd order stream which flows Across the 6 Grama Panchayats from ridge to valley. There are 90 farmers cultivating 168 Acre of land who are benefited by getting an additional income of Rs.37,80,000/-. Keywords: Four water Concept, micro watershed, LBS, RFDs, PTs, CDs and Plantation
Ce6703- WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERINGKUMARCIVIL
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering concepts including definitions of irrigation, necessity of irrigation, benefits and demerits of irrigation, base period, duty, delta, irrigation efficiencies, factors affecting water requirements of crops, and consumptive use of water. It defines irrigation as the artificial application of water to land to create optimal soil moisture for maximizing crop production. It lists factors like insufficient rainfall, uneven rainfall distribution, and improving perennial crops as necessities for irrigation. It also outlines several benefits and potential demerits of irrigation.
The document discusses soil constituents and their proportions, including minerals, organic matter, water, and air. It describes the mineral components of soil in detail, including primary and secondary minerals. It also explains concepts such as soil water potential, classes of soil water, field capacity, permanent wilting point, and available moisture. The water requirements of crops are defined as the total quantity and timing of water needed from sowing to harvest, which can vary by crop and location. Irrigation may be necessary where rainfall is insufficient or unreliable to meet crop water needs.
This document discusses various topics related to irrigation and water conservation, including:
1. The major sources of water for agriculture and consumption are rainfall and snowfall runoff stored in streams, rivers, reservoirs, tanks and ponds or as groundwater.
2. Water has important ecological and physiological roles for plants, such as being a constituent of plant cells, solvent for nutrients, role in photosynthesis, and maintaining turgor pressure.
3. Soil water is classified into hygroscopic, capillary, gravitational, and vapor forms based on how tightly it is bound to soil particles.
4. Factors like soil texture, cover, temperature and wetness influence the infiltration rate at which water
This document discusses artificial groundwater recharge. It begins by defining groundwater and artificial recharge. It then discusses the importance of artificial recharge due to issues like groundwater depletion and drinking water shortages. The document outlines various methods of artificial recharge like spreading methods, recharge shafts, injection wells, and induced recharge. It discusses advantages like increased groundwater availability and disadvantages like potential contamination. Finally, it stresses the importance of groundwater resources and provides recommendations like developing affordable recharge technologies.
the present ppt describes about irrigation methods following from the ancient periods to up to now. the present ppt also describes about sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. it gives an elaborate knowledge on irrigation methods.
1. Watershed management involves integrating land, water, and plant technologies within a drainage area to meet people's needs in a sustainable way.
2. The objectives of watershed management are to conserve soil and water, promote stable crop yields, develop non-arable lands, increase incomes, and restore ecological balance.
3. Key principles of watershed management include using land according to its capabilities, providing vegetative cover, conserving rainwater, draining excess water to storage structures, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem.
This document provides an overview of watershed management in India. It defines a watershed as a geo-hydrological unit that drains to a common point. Watershed management is needed due to declining water availability, as sustainable development requires managing watersheds. Watershed management methods discussed include soil and moisture conservation techniques like terracing and bunding, as well as rainwater harvesting activities like check dams. The benefits of watershed management include increased crop yields, reduced soil erosion, increased availability of surface and groundwater, and improved socio-economic conditions and livelihoods for farmers.
This document provides an introduction to eight tools for watershed protection, summarizing each tool. The first tool discussed is land use planning, outlining how to develop a land use plan to meet water resource goals. Land use planning techniques like zoning are described. The second tool is land conservation, identifying five types of areas to conserve like critical habitats. Land conservation techniques are listed. The third tool discussed is establishing buffers along aquatic corridors, outlining their benefits and management considerations. The fourth tool is better site design to reduce impervious surfaces in developments. Key choices for applying each tool in a watershed are identified.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Specifically, it discusses topics such as water holding capacity, field capacity, wilting point, and available soil water as they relate to plant growth. Types of groundwater and levels of water in soils are also explained.
This document is a glossary that defines terms related to water and wastewater treatment. It provides copyright information for the original source of the definitions. The sample entry defines "Abatement" as putting an end to an undesirable or unlawful condition affecting the wastewater collection system, often through issuing notices of violations and corrective actions that must be taken within a compliance period.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It begins with the course goals of introducing concepts related to soil, water, and plant interactions, as well as irrigation system design. Key concepts covered include the necessity of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and classifications of irrigation schemes in India. Soil properties like texture and structure determine a soil's water holding capacity. Plants obtain water from the soil through transpiration and rely on available soil water between field capacity and wilting point for growth.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, benefits and ill effects, and development of irrigation in India. It describes the course goals to introduce concepts of soil, water, plant interactions and irrigation/drainage design. Key terms are defined, such as culturable command area. Different types of irrigation systems are classified, including flow and lift systems. Soil water relationships are also examined, including classifications of soil water and how water is held in soils.
This document discusses particle size and gradation in soils. It describes:
- The broad range in particle sizes that can make up a soil, from clay particles only 0.002 mm to boulders over 2 m in diameter.
- Particle size grades (clay, silt, sand, gravel etc.) that are defined by discrete size ranges to categorize different particles.
- Methods for measuring particle sizes, including sieving soils and using sedimentation analysis for particles too small to sieve. Larger particles settle out of suspension faster, allowing their size to be determined.
- Key terms like median grain size (D50) and the relationship between particle size distribution curves and histograms of data.
The document describes an early childhood education program where students experimented with and learned about water pressure through various hands-on activities. The students explored water pipes in the bathroom, played with water outside, set up a pretend plumbing shop, took orders and filled out work forms. They also investigated whether objects would sink or float, searched for water pipes around the building, created a PowerPoint presentation, measured pipes, and participated in water play experiments. Throughout, the students gained skills in areas like creative expression, fine motor control, cooperative learning, and understanding scientific concepts.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
1. The document discusses different types of forces and loads that act on structures, including tension, compression, shear, dead load, live load, wind load, and seismic load.
2. It also describes the characteristics of common primary building materials - timber, bricks, concrete, steel, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, and stainless steel.
3. The key materials discussed are timber, which is strong in tension and compression but weak in bending; bricks, which are durable and fire resistant; and concrete and steel, which are very widely used due to their high strength and durability though concrete is weak in tension and steel prone to corrosion.
Introduction:
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation- irrigation development in India- types of irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship: Classification of soil water- soil
moisture contents- depth of soil water available to plants-permanent
and ultimate wilting point
Water requirements of crops:
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty of water and deltaimprovement
of duty- command area and intensity of irrigation consumptive use of water and evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies- assessment of irrigation water
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering in India. It defines irrigation engineering and discusses the necessity of irrigation given India's diverse climate and rainfall patterns. It then summarizes the history of irrigation development in India from ancient times to post-independence. The document also covers major, medium, and minor irrigation projects; water requirements of crops; principal crops in India; methods of irrigation including surface, subsurface and sprinkler; canals; tube well irrigation; dams; and issues like waterlogging and their remedial measures.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the definition and necessity of irrigation due to insufficient rainfall. The benefits of irrigation include increased crop yields and economic development, while ill effects can include rising water tables and loss of land. It then covers the history and development of irrigation in India, including the construction of canals and reservoirs. It also classifies irrigation projects and systems, such as major, medium and minor projects, as well as lift and flow irrigation systems. The document concludes by explaining soil water relationships, including water holding capacities, moisture content, and soil water constants like field capacity and wilting point.
Irrigation development in India, necessity, scope, benefits
and ill effects of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, methods of irrigation, physical
and chemical properties of soils, soil nutrients, classification of irrigable soils, suitability
of soils for irrigation, quality of irrigation water, soil water plant relations in irrigation,
measurement of soil moisture, field capacity, wilting point, available water , hydraulic
conductivity, water movement through soils.
I have tried to discuss about the fundamental knowledge related to Irrigation and Flood Control in short. For more details anyone can visit the books that I have mentioned in my slide presentation. I have tried to cover major topics from books so that student can find it easy to understand and learn about irrigation and flood control. I hope it will help everyone who has interest to Irrigation Engineering.
Rainwater harvesting is a technique to collect and store rainwater runoff from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments. It has been used since ancient times to provide drinking water, water for livestock and irrigation. It involves three steps - catchment, conveyance and storage. Rainwater can be stored in tanks, wells, check dams or percolation tanks to recharge groundwater. Benefits include improving water resources, raising groundwater levels and mitigating droughts and floods.
1. Irrigation management involves scheduling irrigation appropriately based on soil type, crop water requirements, and other factors to efficiently use water resources.
2. Common methods of surface irrigation include border irrigation, check basin irrigation, and ridges and furrows irrigation which involve dividing fields into strips or basins and flooding or furrowing the land.
3. Factors considered in irrigation scheduling include soil type, crop water needs, available water supply, and allowing sufficient drying time between irrigations based on the crop's water depletion level. Monitoring soil moisture, plant conditions, and pan evaporation can help determine irrigation timing.
This document provides an overview of irrigation engineering. It discusses the necessity of irrigation, scope of irrigation engineering, benefits and ill-effects of irrigation, types of irrigation systems, soil-water relationships, and concepts like duty and delta. Key topics covered include different irrigation methods based on water availability and source, soil water classifications, factors affecting crop water demand, and concepts used to measure irrigation water supply and demand.
This document contains the syllabus for the course CE8603 - Irrigation Engineering taught by A.Leema Margret, Assistant Professor at Ramco Institute of Technology, Rajapalayam. The syllabus is divided into 5 units that cover topics like crop water requirement, irrigation methods, diversion and impounding structures, canal irrigation, and water management in irrigation. Key terms discussed in Unit 1 include duty of water, delta, base period, evapotranspiration, and factors affecting duty of water. Surface irrigation methods like flow irrigation and sub-surface irrigation are also introduced.
Water resources engineering is an important branch of engineering that deals with water supply, irrigation, drainage, flood control, and water power. Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to land or soil for agricultural purposes. It is necessary in areas with insufficient rainfall to meet crop water requirements. Some key structures used in watershed management and water conservation include contour trenches, gully plugs, check dams, and gabion structures. Rainwater harvesting involves collecting and storing rainwater and is important for recharging groundwater supplies.
Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is an irrigation practice for rice that saves water and reduces greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining yields. It involves periodically drying and re-flooding rice fields. In Bangladesh, boro rice is fully irrigated while aman rice is partly irrigated. Research shows AWD can save 15-30% of the estimated 3,000-5,000 liters of water needed to produce one kilogram of rice, without lowering yields. The practice involves irrigating until the water table is 20cm below ground, then allowing the field to partially dry before re-flooding. This technique is being validated in Bangladesh and could help conserve irrigation water and reduce environmental impacts.
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The yield of crop is adversely affected when the depth of water table is equal to or less then the one given below.
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2. Content…
Necessity of irrigation- scope of irrigation
engineering- benefits and ill effects of irrigation-
irrigation development in India- types of
irrigation systems, Soil-water plant relationship:
Classification of soil water- soil moisture
contents- depth of soil water available to plants-
permanent and ultimate wilting point
3. Course goals
This course has two specific goals:
(i) To introduce students to basic concepts of soil,
water, plants, their interactions, as well as irrigation and
drainage systems design, planning and management.
(ii) To develop analytical skills relevant to the areas
mentioned in (i) above, particularly the design of
irrigation and drainage projects.
4. Introduction...
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the
land or soil.
It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops,
maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of
inadequate rainfall.
Irrigation is often studied together with drainage,
which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and
sub-surface water from a given area.
7. Benefits of irrigation...
Increase in crop yield
Protection from famine
Cultivation of superior crops
Elimination of mixed cropping
Economic development
Hydro power generation
Domestic and industrial water supply
8. ill effects of irrigation...
Rising of water table
Formation of marshy land
Dampness in weather
Loss of valuable lands
9.
10. Irrigation development in India...
• Among Asian countries India has largest arable
land (40%).
• Only USA has more arable land than India.
• In a monsoon climate and an agrarian economy
like India, irrigation has played a major role in
the production process. There is evidence of
the practice of irrigation since the establishment
of settled agriculture during the Indus Valley
Civilization (2500 BC).
11. These irrigation technologies were in the form
of small and minor works, which could be
operated by small households to irrigate small
patches of land and did not require co-operative
effort.
In the south, perennial irrigation may have
begun with construction of the Grand Anicut by
the Cholas as early as second century to provide
irrigation from the Cauvery river.
12. At beginning of 19th century, there was large no
of water tanks in peninsular India and several
canals in northern India were build.
The upper Ganga canal, upper Bari Doab canal
and the Krishna and Godavari delta system
were constructed between 1836-1866.
During the last fifty years, gross irrigated area
(GIA) of India has increased more than three
fold from 22 to 76 million Hectares.
14. Groundwater irrigation in India developed
during the period of green revolution and
contributed much in increasing the gross
irrigated area of the country.
In the last five decades, groundwater irrigation
has increased from 5 million hectares to
35million hectares.
15. Classification of irrigation schemes ...
Irrigation projects in India are classified into
three categories
major
medium &
minor
according to the area cultivated.
16. 1) Major irrigation projects: projects which have a
culturable command area (CCA) of more than
10,000 ha but more than 2,000 ha utilize mostly
surface water resources.
2) Medium irrigation projects: projects which
have CCA less than 10,000 ha. But more than
2,000 ha utilizes mostly surface water resources.
3) Minor irrigation projects: projects with CCA
less than or equal to 2,000 ha. utilizes both
ground water and local surface water resources.
17. Outlook of the national water policy
Our country had adapted a national water
policy in the year 1987 which was revised in
2002.
The policy document lays down the fact that
planning and development of water resources
should be governed by the national perspective.
18. Aspects related to irrigation from the
policy
Irrigation planning either in an individual project or in
a watershed as a whole should take into account the
irrigability of land, cost-effective irrigation options
possible from all available sources of water and
appropriate irrigation techniques for optimizing water
use efficiency.
There should be a close integration of water use and
land use policies.
19. Water allocation in an irrigation system should
be done with due regard to equity and social
justice.
Concerted efforts should be made to ensure
that the irrigation potential created is fully
utilised.
Irrigation being the largest consumer of fresh
water, the aim should be to get optimal
productivity per unit of water.
20. Types of irrigation systems...
The classification of the irrigation systems can
also be based on the way the water is applied to
the agricultural land as –
1. Flow irrigation system: where the irrigation
water is conveyed by growing to the irrigated
land.
- Direct irrigation
- Reservoir/tank/storage irrigation
21. 2. Lift irrigation system: Where the irrigation
water is available at a level lower than that of the
land to be irrigated and hence the water is lifted
up by pumps or by other mechanical devices
for lifting water and conveyed to the agricultural
land through channels flowing under gravity.
22. Classification of irrigation systems may also be
made on the basis of duration of the applied
water.
1. Inundation/flooding type irrigation system: In
which large quantities of water flowing in a river
during floods is allowed to inundate the land to be
cultivated, thereby saturating the soil.
- The excess water is then drained off and the land is
used for cultivation.
- It is also common in the areas near river deltas,
where the slope of the river and land is small.
23. 2. Perennial irrigation system: In which irrigation
water is supplied according to the crop water
requirement at regular intervals, throughout the
life cycle of the crop.
- The water for such irrigation may be obtained
from rivers or from wells.
24. Some important terms
1. Culturable Command Area (CCA): The gross
command area contains unfertile barren land,
alkaline soil, local ponds, villages and other
areas as habitation.
These areas are called unculturable areas. The
remaining area on which crops can be grown
satisfactorily is known as cultivable command
area (CCA).
25. Culturable command area can further be
divided into 2 categories
Culturable cultivated area: It is the area in which
crop is grown at a particular time or crop season.
Culturable uncultivated area: It is the area in which
crop is not sown in a particular season.
26. 2. Gross command area (GCA): The total area lying
between drainage boundaries which can be
commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
G.C.A = C.C.A + unculturable area
3. Water Tanks: These are dug areas of lands for storing
excess rain water.
27. 4. Water logged area: An agricultural land is said to be
waterlogged when its productivity or fertility is affected
by high water table.
The depth of water-table at which it tends to make the
soil water-logged and harmful to the growth and
subsistence of plant life depends upon the height of
capillary fringe.
The height of capillary fringe is more for fine grained
soil and less for coarse grained ones.
28. 5. Outlet: This is a small structure which admits
water from the distributing channel to a water
course of field channel. Thus an outlet is a sort
of head regulator for the field channel
delivering water to the irrigation fields.
6. Permanent wilting point: or the wilting
coefficient is that water content at which plants
can no longer extract sufficient water from the
soil for its growth.
31. Vocabulary Terms
Potable- drinkable, free from contaminants.
Irrigation- addition of water to plants to
supplement water provided by rain or snow.
Water Cycle – the cycling of water among the
water sources to surface, to atmosphere, back to
surface.
32. Vocabulary Terms
Precipitation – falling products of condensation
in the atmosphere, as rain, snow, or hail.
Evaporation – to change from a liquid or solid
state to a vapor or gas.
Saturate – this happens to soil when water is
added until all the spaces or pores are filled.
33. Types of Groundwater
Gravitational – also called “free water.”
- This is the water that drains out of the soil
after it has been wetted.
- This water moves downward through the soil
because of the pull of gravity.
- This water also feeds wells and springs.
34. Types of Groundwater
Capillary – water that moves into and is held in the
soil by capillary forces (or pertaining to the attraction
or repulsion between a solid and a liquid).
- Plant roots can absorb or take up this moisture.
- The size of the soil pore will influence the
amount of water held by capillary forces.
- Provides most of the moisture for plant growth.
35. Types of Groundwater
Hygroscopic - very thin water films around
the soil particles.
- These films are held by extremely strong
forces that cause the water molecules to be
arranged in a semi-solid form.
- This water is unavailable to plants.
36. How is Soil Water Classified?
1) Hygroscopic Water is held so strongly by the
soil particles (adhesion), that it is not available
to the plants.
2) Capillary Water is held by cohesive forces
greater than gravity and is available to plants.
3) Gravitational Water is that water which cannot
be held against gravity.
– as water is pulled down through the soil, nutrients
are "leached" out of the soil (nitrogen)
37. Levels of Water in Soil
Saturation Point – the moisture point at which
all of the pore spaces are filled with water.
- Occurs when an area receives a lot of rain on a
daily basis and the water does not get absorbed
by plants, evaporation is at a low do to the lack
of sunlight, and runoff areas (ditches, drains) are
to capacity.
38. Levels of Water in Soil
Field Capacity – the maximum amount of
water left in the soil after losses of water to the
forces of gravity have ceased and before surface
evaporation begins.
- Occurs when the soil contains the maximum
amount of capillary water.
39. Levels of Water in Soil
Wilting Point – the point at which the plant
can no longer obtain sufficient water from the
soil to meet its transpiration needs.
- At this point the plant enters permanent wilt
and dies.
40. Levels of Water in Soil
Available Soil Water – that amount present
in a soil which can be moved by plants.
- It is designated as the difference between the
field capacity and the wilting point.
41. The Hydrolic (Water) Cycle
Water is constantly moving
through the atmosphere and
into and out of the soil.
Soil moisture is one portion
of the cycle which can be
controlled to the greatest extent
by affecting the soil.
42. How Does Water Enter the Soil?
through pores in the soil
sandy soils have the largest pores, but are
often filled with other material
medium textured soils (loamy) have good
water entry properties
clays, pores swell shut when they get wet
44. Vocabulary Terms
Water Holding Capacity – is a soil property
which represents the amount of water a soil can
retain after it has been saturated by rain and
downward movement has ceased.
Transpiration – the process by which water, as a
vapor, is lost by living plants.
45. Vocabulary Terms
Translocation – the process by which water
moves through a plant from the roots to the
leaves.
Wilting Point – the moisture content of a soil in
which growing plants wilt and will not recover
after water is added.
46. Vocabulary Terms
Evapotranspiration - the combination of water
that is lost from the soil
through evaporation and through transpiration
from plants as a part of their metabolic
processes
Adhesion – the attraction of two different
molecules (water to soil)
Cohesion – the attraction of two similar
molecules (water to water)
47. Water Holding Capacities of Soils
The amount of water a soil can retain is
influenced by:
– soil texture
– soil structure
– organic matter.
48. Soil Texture
– The smaller the soil particles, the greater the soil’s
water holding capacity. Clay has more water
holding capacity than sand.
– Small soil particles (clay) have more small pores or
capillary spaces, so they have a higher water holding
capacity. Large soil particles (sand) have fewer
capillary spaces, therefore less ability to hold water.
49. Soil Structure
- A soil structure has a direct correlation to the
amount of water it can retain.
Organic Matter
– Organic matter aids in cementing
particles of clay, silt, and sand together into
aggregates which increases the water holding
capacity.
– Decomposition of organic matter also adds
vital nutrients to the soil.
52. Bulk Density (b)
– b = soil bulk density, g/cm3
– Ms = mass of dry soil, g
– Vb = volume of soil sample, cm3
Typical values: 1.1 - 1.6 g/cm3
Particle Density (p)
– P = soil particle density, g/cm3
– Ms = mass of dry soil, g
– Vs = volume of solids, cm3
Typical values: 2.6 - 2.7 g/cm3
b
s
b
V
M
p
s
s
M
V
54. Soil moisture content
The soil moisture content indicates the amount
of water present in the soil.
It is commonly expressed as the amount of
water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth
of one metre of soil.
For example: when an amount of water (in mm
of water depth) of 150 mm is present in a depth
of one metre of soil, the soil moisture content is
150 mm/m
55.
56. Water in Soils
Soil water content
– Mass water content (m)
– m = mass water content (fraction)
– Mw = mass of water evaporated, g
(24 hours @ 105o
C)
– Ms = mass of dry soil, g
s
w
m
M
M
57. Volumetric water content (v)
– V = volumetric water content (fraction)
– Vw = volume of water
– Vb = volume of soil sample
– At saturation, V =
– V = As m
– As = apparent soil specific gravity = b/w
(w = density of water = 1 g/cm3)
– As = b numerically when units of g/cm3 are used
v
w
b
V
V
58. Equivalent depth of water (d)
– d = volume of water per unit land area = (v A L) / A = v L
– d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer
– L = depth (thickness) of the soil layer
60. Volumetric Water Content & Equivalent Depth
Typical Values for Agricultural Soils
1 in.
0.50 in.
0.15 in.
0.20 in.
0.15 in.
Soil Solids (Particles): 50%
Total Pore
Space: 50%
Very Large Pores: 15%
(Gravitational Water)
Medium-sized Pores: 20%
(Plant Available Water)
Very Small Pores: 15%
(Unavailable Water)
61. Water-Holding Capacity of Soil
Effect of Soil Texture
Coarse Sand Silty Clay Loam
Gravitational Water
Water Holding Capacity
Available Water
Unavailable Water
Dry Soil
62. Soil water constants
For a particular soil, certain soil water
proportions are defined which dictate whether
the water is available or not for plant growth.
These are called the soil water constants, which
are described below.
63. Saturation capacity: this is the total water
content of the soil when all the pores of the soil
are filled with water.
It is also termed as the maximum water holding
capacity of the soil.
At saturation capacity, the soil moisture tension
is almost equal to zero.
64. Field capacity: this is the water retained by an
initially saturated soil against the force of gravity.
Hence, as the gravitational water gets drained
off from the soil, it is said to reach the field
capacity.
At field capacity, the macro-pores of the soil
are drained off, but water is retained in the
micropores.
65. Permanent wilting point: plant roots are able to
extract water from a soil matrix, which is
saturated up to field capacity.
However, as the water extraction proceeds, the
moisture content diminishes and the negative
pressure increases.
At one point, the plant cannot extract any
further water and thus wilts.
66. Two stages of wilting points are recognized and
they are:
Temporary wilting point: this denotes the soil
water content at which the plant wilts at day
time, but recovers during right or when water is
added to the soil.
Ultimate wilting point: at such a soil water
content, the plant wilts and fails to regain life
even after addition of water to soil.
67. It must be noted that the above water contents
are expressed as percentage of water held in the
soil pores, compared to a fully saturated soil.
68.
69. Available Water
Water held in the soil between field capacity and
permanent wilting point
“Available” for plant use
Available Water Capacity (AWC)
– AWC = fc - wp
– Units: depth of available water per unit depth of soil,
“unitless” (in/in, or mm/mm)
– Measured using field or laboratory methods
71. Fraction available water depleted (fd)
– (fc - v) = soil water deficit (SWD)
– v = current soil volumetric water content
Fraction available water remaining (fr)
– (v - wp) = soil water balance (SWB)
wpfc
vfc
df
wpfc
wpv
rf
72. Total Available Water (TAW)
TAW = (AWC) (Rd)
– TAW = total available water capacity within the plant
root zone, (inches)
– AWC = available water capacity of the soil,
(inches of H2O/inch of soil)
– Rd = depth of the plant root zone, (inches)
– If different soil layers have different AWC’s, need to
sum up the layer-by-layer TAW’s
TAW = (AWC1) (L1) + (AWC2) (L2) + . . . (AWCN)
(LN)
- L = thickness of soil layer, (inches)
- 1, 2, N: subscripts represent each successive soil layer
73. Depth of Penetration
Can be viewed as sequentially filling the soil
profile in layers
Deep percolation: water penetrating deeper
than the bottom of the root zone
Leaching: transport of chemicals from the root
zone due to deep percolation
76. Content…
Depth of water applied during irrigation- Duty
of water and delta improvement of duty-
command area and intensity of irrigation
consumptive use of water and
Evapotranspiration- irrigation efficiencies-
assessment of irrigation water.
77. Introduction…
The term water requirements of a crop means
the total quantity of all water and the way in
which a crop requires water, from the time it is
sown to the time it is harvested.
The water requirement of crop varies with the
crop as well as with the place.
The same crop may have different water
requirements at different places of the same
country.
78. Factors affecting water requirement
Water table: high water table less requirement,
vice versa.
Climate: In hot climate evaporation loss is
more, hence requirement more, vice versa.
Ground slope: ground is steep, the water flows
down very quickly and soil gets little time to
absorb, so requirement more. If ground is flat
less requirement.
79. Intensity of irrigation: if intensity of irrigation
for a particular crop is high, then more area
comes under the irrigation system and
requirement is more, vice versa.
Type of soil: sandy soil water percolates very
quickly, so requirement is more. Clay soil
retention capacity is more, so less requirement.
Method of application of water: surface method
more water is required to meet up evaporation.
In sub surface and sprinkler method less water
required.
80. Method of ploughing: In deep ploughing less
water required, because soil can retain moisture
for longer period. In shallow ploughing more
water required.
81. Base
Base is defined as the period from the first to
the last watering of the crop just before its
maturity.
Also known as base period.
Denoted as “B” and expressed in no of days.
Crop Base in days
Rice 120
Wheat 120
Maize 100
Cotton 200
Sugarcane 320
82. Delta
Each crop requires certain amount of water per
hectare for its maturity.
If the total of amount of water supplied to the
crop is stored on the land without any loss, then
there will be a thick of water standing on the
land.
This depth of water layer is known as Delta for
the crop.
Donated by “∆” expressed on cm.
83. Kharif crop Delta in cm
Rice 125
Maize 45
Ground nut 30
Millet 30
Rabi crop Delta in cm
Wheat 40
Mustard 45
Gram 30
Potato 75
84. Duty
Duty of water is defined as no of hectares that
can be irrigated by constant supply of water at
the rate of one cumec throughout the base
period.
Denoted as “D” and expressed in
hectares/cumec.
Varies with soil condition, method of
ploughing, method of application of water.
1 cumec-day = 1 m3/sec for one day.
86. Factors affecting duty
Soil characteristics: if soil of the canal bed is
porous and coarse grained, it leads to more
seepage loss and low duty. If soil is compact
and close grained, seepage loss will less and
high duty.
Climatic condition: when atmospheric temp. of
command area becomes high, the evaporation
loss is more and duty becomes low and vice
versa.
87. Rainfall: if rainfall is sufficient during crop period, less
quantity of irrigation water shall be required and duty
will more and vice versa.
Base period: when base period is longer, the water
requirement will be more and duty will low and vice
versa.
Type of crop: water requirement of various crops are
different. So the duty also varies.
Topography of agricultural land: if land has slight
slope duty will high as water requirement optimum. As
slope increases duty increases because there is wastage
of water.
88. Method of ploughing: deep ploughing by tractor
requires less quantity of water, duty is high. Shallow
ploughing by bullocks requires more quantity of water,
duty is low.
Methods of irrigation: duty is high in case of perennial
irrigation system as compared to inundation irrigation
system. Because in perennial system head regulator is
used.
Water tax: if some tax is imposed on the basis of
volume of water consumption, the farmer will use the
water economically, duty will be high.
89. Methods of improving duty
Proper ploughing: Ploughing should be done properly
and deeply, so that moisture retaining capacity of soil
is increased.
Methods of supplying water: this should be decided
according to the field and soil conditions.
Furrow method – crops shown in row
Contour method – hilly area
Basin method – for orchards
Flooding method – plain lands
90. Canal lining: to reduce percolation loss the canals
should be lined according to site condition.
Transmission loss: to reduce this canals should be
taken close to the irrigable land as far as possible.
Crop rotation: crop rotation should be adopted to
increase the moisture retaining capacity and fertility
of the soil.
Implementation of tax: the water tax should be
imposed on the basis of volume of water
consumption.
91. Relation between Base, Delta and Duty
Let,
D = duty of water in hectare/cumec
B = base in days
∆ = delta in m
From definition, one cumec of water flowing
continuously for “B” days gives a depth of water
∆ over an area “D” hectares. i.e.
1 cumec for 1 days gives ∆ over D/B hectares.
92. or
1 cumec for B days gives ∆ over D/B hectares.
or
1 cumec for 1 day = (D/B) × ∆ hectare – meter
1 cumec- day = (D/B) × ∆ hectare – meter ----- (i)
Again, 1 cumec- day = 1 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 m3 =
8.64 hectare – meter ------- (ii)
(1 hectare = 10, 000 m2)
From (i) & (ii) = (D/B) × ∆ = 8.64
∆ = (8.64 × B)/ D = in m.
93. Command area
"The area which lies on down stream side of
project to which water can reach by gravity
action."
There are the three types of commanded areas.
Gross Commanded Area (G.C.A)
The Gross commanded area is the total area
lying between drainage boundaries which can
be irrigated by a canal system.
94. Cultivable Commanded Area (C.C.A)
It is the net area, which can be irrigated by a
canal system. It includes all land on which
cultivation is possible, though all area may not
be under cultivation at the time.
G.C.A. = C.C.A. + Uncultivable area
Irrigable Commanded Area (1.C.A)
It is the part of cultivable commanded area,
which can be irrigated. All the
C.C.A. cannot be irrigated because of high
elevation.
95. Intensity of Irrigation
It is the ratio of area irrigated per season to total
irrigable areas or small projects is based on this.
96. Types of soil
Alluvial soil: formed by deposition of silt carried by
river water during flood.
Silt is formed due to weathering action of rocks by
heavy current of river water in the hilly regions.
Found in Indo –Gangetic plains, Brahmaputra plains.
97. Black soil: originated by weathering action on
rocks like granite, basalt etc.
Mainly found in AP, MP, TN, Gujarat.
They are sticky when wet and very hard when
dry.
Suitable for
cultivation of cotton.
98. Red soil: formed by weathering action of rocks
of igneous and metamorphic group.
Water absorbing capacity very low.
Found in Karnataka, TN, Orissa, WB,
Maharashtra etc.
99. Laterite soil: formed by weathering action of
laterite rocks.
Yellowish red in color and having good
drainage property.
Found in Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Assam etc.
100. Consumptive use of water
It is defined as total quantity of water used for
the growth of plants by transpiration and the
amount of lost by evaporation.
It is also known as evapo-transpiration.
Expressed in hectare-meter or as depth of water
in m.
The value of consumptive use of water is vary
from crop to crop, time to time, place to place.
101. Evapotranspiration
a) Evaporation: The process by which water is changed
from the liquid or solid state into the gaseous state
through the transfer of heat energy.
b) Transpiration: The evaporation of water absorbed
by the crop which is used directly in the building of
plant tissue in a specified time. It does not include soil
evaporation.
c) Evapotranspiration, ET: It is the sum of the amount
of water transpired by plants during the growth process
and that amount that is evaporated from soil and
vegetation in the domain occupied by the growing
crop. ET is normally expressed in mm/day.
102. Factors that affect Evapotranspiration
Weather parameters
Crop Characteristics
Management and Environmental aspects are
factors affecting ET
103. Weather Parameters:
The principal weather conditions affecting
Evapotranspiration are:
Radiation
Air temperature
Humidity and
Wind speed.
104. Crop characteristics that affect ET :
Crop Type
Variety of Crop
Development Stage
Crop Height
Crop Roughness
Ground Cover
Crop Rooting Depth
105. Management and Environmental Factors :
Factors such as soil salinity,
Poor land fertility,
Limited application of fertilizers,
Absence of control of diseases and
Pests and poor soil management
May limit the crop development and
reduce soil Evapotranspiration.
106. Other factors that affect ET are ground cover,
plant density and soil water content.
The effect of soil water content on ET is
conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the
water deficit and the type of soil.
Too much water will result in water logging
which might damage the root and limit root
water uptake by inhibiting respiration.
107. Determination of ET
Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure.
Specific devices and accurate measurements of
various physical parameters or the soil water
balance in lysimeters are required to determine
ET.
The methods are expensive, demanding and
used for research purposes.
They remain important for evaluating ET
estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
108. Water Balance Method
The Water Balance or Budget Method is a
measurement of continuity of flow of water.
This method consists of drawing up a balance sheet of
all the water entering and leaving a particular
catchment or drainage basin.
The water balance equation can be written as:
ET = I + P – RO – DP + CR + SF + SW
Where: I is Irrigation, P is rainfall, RO is surface
runoff, DP is deep percolation, CR is capillary rise,
SF and SW are change in sub-surface flow and change
in soil water content respectively
109. Lysimeter Method
A water tight tank of cylindrical shape having dia about
2 m and depth about 3 m is placed vertically in
ground.
The tank is filled with sample soil.
Bottom of the tank consists of sand layer and a pan for
collecting surplus water.
The consumptive use of water is measured by the
amount of water required for the satisfactory growth of
plants with in tank.
Cu = Wa - Wd (Cu = consumptive use, Wa = water
applied, Wd = Water drained off)
110.
111. Field experimental method
Some fields are selected for expt.
The quantity of water is applied in such a way
that it is sufficient for satisfactory growth of
crops.
There should be no percolation or deep runoff.
If there is any runoff it should be measured and
deducted from the total quantity of water
applied.
112. Soil moisture study
Several plots of land are selected where irrigation
water is to be supplied.
The soil samples are taken from diff depths at the root
zone of the plants before and after irrigation.
Then water contents of the soil samples are
determined by laboratory tests.
The depth of water removed from soil determined by
Dr = pwd/ 100
(Dr= depth of water removed in m, p = % of water
content, w = sp. Gr. Of soil, d= depth of soil in m)
113. The total quantity of water removed in 30 days
period is calculated.
Then a curve of water consumption versus time
is prepared.
From this curve the water consumption for any
period can be calculated.
114. Irrigation efficiencies
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water
input, and is usually expressed as percentage.
Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if
losses are more, output is less and, therefore,
efficiency is less.
Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional to the
losses.
Water is lost in irrigation during various processes
and, therefore, there are different kinds of irrigation
efficiencies.
115. Efficiency of Water-conveyance (ηc)
It is the ratio of amount of water applied to the land to
the amount of water supplied from the reservoir.
It may be represented by ηc.
ηc = (Wl/Wr) × 100
where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency,
Wl = amount of water applied to land, and
Wr = Water supplied from reservoir.
116. Water application efficiency (ηa)
Ratio of water stored in root zone of plants to the
water applied to the land.
Denoted by ηa= (Wz/Wl) × 100
ηa = water application efficiency
Wz = amount of water stored in root zone
Wl = amount of water applied to land
117. Water use efficiency (ηu )
Ratio of the amount of water used to the
amount of water applied.
Denoted by ηu .
ηu = (Wu/Wl) × 100
ηu = water efficiency use.
Wu = water used
Wl = water applied
118. Consumptive use efficiency (ηcu )
Ratio of the consumptive use of water to the
amount of water depleted from the root zone.
ηcu= (Cu/Wp) × 100
ηcu = consumptive use efficiency
Cu = consumptive use of water
Wp = amount of water depleted from root zone
119. Standard of irrigation water
Constituent Long-term use (mg/L) Short-term use (mg/L)
Aluminum 5.0 20.0
Arsenic 0.10 2.0
Beryllium 0.10 0.5
Boron 0.75 2.0
Chromium 0.1 1.0
Cobalt 0.05 5.0
Copper 0.2 5.0
Fluoride 1.0 15.0
Iron 5.0 20.0
Lead 5.0 10.0
Manganese 0.2 10.0
Nickel 0.2 20.0
Zinc 0.2 10.0
120. Methods of Measuring Irrigation Water
a) Direct method: Collect water in a contained of known
volume e.g. bucket. Measure the time required for water from
an irrigation source e.g. siphon to fill the bucket.
Flow rate = Volume/time m3/hr or L/s etc.
b) Weirs: Weirs are regular notches over which water flows.
They are used to regulate floods through rivers, overflow dams
and open channels.
Weirs can be sharp or broad crested; made from concrete
timber, or metal and can be of cross-section rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular.
Sharp crested rectangular or triangular sections are commonly
used on the farm.
121. The discharge through a weir is usually expressed as:
Q = C L Hm
where Q is the discharge;
C is the coefficient dependent on the nature of weir crest
and approach conditions;
L is the length of crest;
H is the head on the crest and
m is an exponent depending on weir opening.
Weirs should be calibrated to determine these
parameters before use eg. for trapezoidal weirs(Cipoletti
weir),
Q = 0.0186 L H1.5
Q is discharge in L/s;
L, H are in cm.
122. c) Orifices: An orifice is an opening in the wall of a
tank containing water.
The orifice can be circular, rectangular, triangular or
any other shape.
The discharge through an orifice is given by:
Q = C A 2 g h
Where Q is the discharge rate;
C is the coefficient of discharge (0.6 - 0.8);
A is the area of the orifice;
g is the acceleration due to gravity and
h is the head of water over an orifice.
123. d) Flumes: Hydraulic flumes are artificial open channels
or sections of natural channels.
Two major types of hydraulic flumes are Parshall or
Trapezoidal ones.
Flumes need to be calibrated after construction before
use.
e) For streams, use gauging. A current meter is used to
measure velocity at 0.2 and 0.8 Depth or at only 0.6
depth.
Measure areas of all sections using trapezoidal areas.
Q = ai vi
124. f) Using Floats: A floating object is put in water and
observe the time it takes the float e.g. a cork to go
from one marked area to another.
Assuming the float travels D meters in t secs
Velocity of water at surface = ( D/t ) m/s
Average velocity of flow = 0.8 (D/t)
Flow rate, Q = Cross sectional area of flow x velocity.
D
Object