Introduction
Hydrology
Water cycle
Watershed Development
Integrated Watershed Management
Water Conservation & Harvesting
Basic introduction of hydraulic structures.
conclusion
references
Introduction
Hydrology
Water cycle
Watershed Development
Integrated Watershed Management
Water Conservation & Harvesting
Basic introduction of hydraulic structures.
conclusion
references
Concept and approach of springshed development and management 22 jan 2020India Water Portal
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Community mobilization and institutional framework including monitoring mecha...India Water Portal
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Learning about Springs & Groundwater_ Dr.Jared Buono and Dr. Himanshu Kulkarn...India Water Portal
This is the presentation by Dr.Jared Buono and Dr. Himanshu Kulkarni on Springs, Aquifers and Ground Water. It talks about how springs are related to Ground water management and vice-versa.
DAM Site Selection Using GIS Techniques and remote sensing to Minimize Flash ...inventionjournals
In the last few years devastating flash floods descending downstream through valleys had occurred in East Nile Locality-Sudan. A flash flood can be caused by intense rain, particularly when it takes place in a saturated area where rain has previously fallen. Under these conditions the additional rain runs off over the surface and accumulates in streams and channels at a much accelerated pace. The flooded water had caused a considerable damage in houses, roads and properties. Construction of earth dams is suggested to minimize the destructive effect of these flash floods and make use of stored water in agriculture and grazing. To determine the location of earth dams, multi criterion methods had been used. The best dam location had been achieved applying the selection criterion. The surface areas, volume of reservoirs, had been determined for every selected location Using ArcGIS. Major Landuse, landcover, stream order and location of water body had projected on the watershed area of the Soba valley to extract the residential areas, agricultural areas and grassland effected by suggested dams. Dam location selection model and volume model had been designed to repeat the steps and report the analysis results automatically.
Definition of drought, Causes of drought, measures for water conservation and
augmentation, drought contingency planning. Water harvesting: rainwater
collection, small dams, runoff enhancement, runoff collection, ponds, tanks.
Concept and approach of springshed development and management 22 jan 2020India Water Portal
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Community mobilization and institutional framework including monitoring mecha...India Water Portal
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Over the last decade, demand for spring management has increased as traditional spring sources have started drying up or becoming contaminated. In response, communities, NGOs and state agencies began dedicated spring protection programmes. In the Himalayas, the State of Sikkim and organizations such as Central Himalayan Action and Research Group (CHIRAG) and People Science Institute (PSI) started identifying and protecting spring recharge areas around 2007. The difference between these programmes and many other previous efforts is that they went beyond supply-side improvements to focus on the use of hydrogeology to map springsheds for targeted interventions.
The Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a research and capacity-building organization comprised of hydrogeologists and other experts began lending their expertise and building capacity of stakeholders. ACWADAM provides technical support, training and materials in hydrogeology to all network partners as well as others in India and the region. Similar programmes began independently in most of the mountain regions of India. Arghyam, a funding organization that was supporting many of these programmes, noticed that these disparate initiatives shared commonalities despite geographic diversity. They thus organized and funded a meeting of these various organizations in June 2014, and the Springs Initiative was born.
The springs initiative aims to tackle the current water crisis and to ensure safe and sustainable access to water for all, by promoting responsible and appropriate management of aquifers, springsheds, and watersheds and conserving ecosystems in partnership with communities, governments and other stakeholders.
This presentation has been developed as a part of the springs initiative to promote an understanding of springs and their role in mountainous areas.
Learning about Springs & Groundwater_ Dr.Jared Buono and Dr. Himanshu Kulkarn...India Water Portal
This is the presentation by Dr.Jared Buono and Dr. Himanshu Kulkarni on Springs, Aquifers and Ground Water. It talks about how springs are related to Ground water management and vice-versa.
DAM Site Selection Using GIS Techniques and remote sensing to Minimize Flash ...inventionjournals
In the last few years devastating flash floods descending downstream through valleys had occurred in East Nile Locality-Sudan. A flash flood can be caused by intense rain, particularly when it takes place in a saturated area where rain has previously fallen. Under these conditions the additional rain runs off over the surface and accumulates in streams and channels at a much accelerated pace. The flooded water had caused a considerable damage in houses, roads and properties. Construction of earth dams is suggested to minimize the destructive effect of these flash floods and make use of stored water in agriculture and grazing. To determine the location of earth dams, multi criterion methods had been used. The best dam location had been achieved applying the selection criterion. The surface areas, volume of reservoirs, had been determined for every selected location Using ArcGIS. Major Landuse, landcover, stream order and location of water body had projected on the watershed area of the Soba valley to extract the residential areas, agricultural areas and grassland effected by suggested dams. Dam location selection model and volume model had been designed to repeat the steps and report the analysis results automatically.
Definition of drought, Causes of drought, measures for water conservation and
augmentation, drought contingency planning. Water harvesting: rainwater
collection, small dams, runoff enhancement, runoff collection, ponds, tanks.
Hydrology means science of water.
It is the science that deals with the occurance, circulation and distribution of water on the earth.
Hydrology is a broad subject of an inter-disciplinary nature drawing support from allied sciences.
This study explains the use of remote sensing data for spatially distributed hydrological modeling using the MIKE-SHE software used in Tarim River Basin CHINA
SWaRMA_IRBM_Module2_#5, Role of hydrometeorological monitoring for IRBM in Ne...ICIMOD
This presentation is the part of 12-day (28 January–8 February 2019) training workshop on “Multi-scale Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) from the Hindu Kush Himalayan Perspective” organized by the Strengthening Water Resources Management in Afghanistan (SWaRMA) Initiative of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), and targeted at participants from Afghanistan.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a revolutionary concept that connects everyday objects and devices to the internet, enabling them to communicate, collect, and exchange data. Imagine a world where your refrigerator notifies you when you’re running low on groceries, or streetlights adjust their brightness based on traffic patterns – that’s the power of IoT. In essence, IoT transforms ordinary objects into smart, interconnected devices, creating a network of endless possibilities.
Here is a blog on the role of electrical and electronics engineers in IOT. Let's dig in!!!!
For more such content visit: https://nttftrg.com/
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
2. VISION
To become a role model in the field of Civil
Engineering for the sustainable development of
the society.
MISSION
1) To provide outcome base education.
2) To create a learning environment conducive for
achieving academicexcellence.
3) To prepare civil engineers for the society with
high ethical values.
3. CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Program Educational Objectives
1 To strengthen students with fundamental knowledge, effective
computing, problem solving and communication skills enable
them to have successful career in civil engineering.
2. To enable students in acquiring civil engineering’s latest
tools, technologies and management principles to give them
an ability to solve multidisciplinary engineering problems.
3. To impart students with ethical values and commitment
towards sustainable development in collaborative mode.
4. To reinforce students with research aptitude and innovative
approaches which help them to identify, analyze, formulate
and solve real life problems and motivates them for lifelong
learning.
5. To empower students with leadership quality and team
building skills that prepare them for employment,
entrepreneurship and to become competent professionals to
serve societies and global needs
4. Course Outcomes of WRE
CO 1 Various components of hydrologic cycle that affect
the movement of water in the earth.
CO 2 The concepts of movement of ground water beneath
the earth, Basic components of river Training works.
CO 3 The basic requirements of irrigation and various
irrigation techniques, requirements of the crops.
CO 4 Distribution systems for canal irrigation and the
basics of design of unlined and lined irrigation canals
design.
CO 5 Various Stream flow measurements technique,
Apply math, science, and technology in the field of water
resource Engineering.
5. Introduction
Definitions,
Water resources engineering is the quantitative
study of the hydrologic cycle -- the distribution
and circulation of water linking the earth's
atmosphere, land and water bodies. ...
Applications include the management of the
urban water supply, the design of urban
storm-sewer systems, and flood forecasting.
6. Functions And Advantages Of Irrigation
Definitions-Irrigation may be define as science of
artificial application of water to the land with the
crop requirement throughout the crop period.
Advantages Of Irrigation-
To increase food production.
It improves the yields of crops .
It improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to
seepage adds to groundwater storage.
We use it to help the growth of crops during the period
of inadequate rainfall.
7. DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION
• Excessive seepage and leakage of water create
marshes and ponds all along the channels. The
marshes and the ponds in some time become
breeding areas for mosquitoes.
• It lowers the temperature and makes the locality
damp due to the presence of irrigation water.
• Excessive seepage into the ground raises the
water, hence causing waterlogging of the area.
9. 1 Surface irrigation
In surface irrigation, water moves over and
across the land by simple gravity flow to
wetland and infiltrate the soil.
10. 2. Sprinkler irrigation
It is a popular method. Pipes carry some amount
of water to the fields and then sprays it directly
over the crops with high-pressure sprinklers.
11. 3. Drip irrigation
With this type, the drip lines take water
near the root zone of plants and release
it drop by drop.
12. 4. Center pivot irrigation
It involves a self-propelled system in
which a single pipeline moves on
wheeled towers in a circular pattern.
13. Indian crop seasons
The Kharif crops are rice, bajra, jowar,
maize, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, e.tc.
Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram,
linseed, mustard, potatoes, etc
Summer crops
Winter crops
Zaid Crops pumpkin, cucumber, bitter groud.
14. Categories of Crops in India
Food Crops (Wheat, Maize, Rice, Millets and
Pulses etc.)
Cash Crops-a crop which has to be encashed
in the market for processing, etc. as it cannot
be consumed directly by the cultivators.
(Sugarcane, Tobacco, Cotton, Jute and Oilseeds
etc.)
Plantation Crops (Coffee, Coconut, Tea, and
Rubber etc.)
15. HYDROLOGY
INRODUCTION-
. Hydrology means science of water.
. It is the science that deals with the
ccurance, circulation and distribution of
water on the earth.
. Hydrology is a broad subject of an inter-
disciplinary nature drawing support from
allied sciences.
16. HYDROLOGY DEALS WITH
• Estimation of water resources
• The study of processes such as precipitation,
runoff, evapotranspiration and their
interaction
• The study of problems such as floods,
droughts and strategies to combat them
17. ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY(APPLIED HYDROLOGY):
A study concerned with engineering applications
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY APPLICATOINS:
• In design
• Operations of projects dealing with water supply
• Irrigation and drainage
• Water power
• Flood control
• Navigation
• Costal works
• Salinity control
• Recreational uses of water etc.
20. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:
The hydrologic cycle is the general continuous circulation
of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, to the
ground and back to the oceas again.
Sun is the main source of energy for hydrologic cycle.
Let us consider the cycle begins with oceans
21. The various stages of hydrologic cycle are
Evaporation
Precipitation
Infiltration
Traspitation
It is a continuous process
Each path of hydrologic cycle may have one or more
of the following
Trasportation of water
Temporary storage
Change of state
24. RAINFALL MEASURMENT:
Rainfall is expressed interms of the depth to which
rain water would stand on an area if allthe rain
were collected in it.
Rainfall is measured by rainguage
Rainguage is a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in
open to collect rain
25. TYPES OF RAINGUAGE
TYPES OF RAINGUAGE
NON-RECORDING RAINGUAGE SELF RECORDING(AUTOMATIC)
SYMON’S GUAGE
STANDARD NON RECORDING
TYPE RAINGUAGE
•TIPPING BUCKET
•WEIGHING TYPE
•FLOAT TYPE
•TELEMETERING
•RADAR MEASURMENT
26. NON RECORDING TYPE RAINGUAGES:
It does not record the rainfall directly but only
collect the rain water, which when measured gives
the total amount of rainfall at the given point of
time.
27. Precipitation gauge
1 - pole
2 - collector
3- support-
galvanized
metal sheet
4 – funnel
5 - steel ring
1. Non recording gauge
28. The graphic rain gauge
1-receiver
2-floater
3 siphon
4 recording needle
5drum with diagram
6-clock mechanism
The rainguages that automatically record the intensity of
rainfall over a period of time in the form of pen trace or a
clock driven chart.
29. COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVERA
BASIN:
Inorder to compute the average Rainfall over a
basin or catchment area, the rainfall is measured at
a number of stations located in that area.
If the basement area contains more than one
rainguage station then following methods are used
for computation of average rainfall.
Arithmetic mean method
Thiessen polygon method
Isohytel method
30. Arithmetic mean method:
Average rainfall is calculated by arithmetic average
of recorded rainfall at various stations of selected
area
This is the simplest method of computing the
average rainfall over a basin. As the name
suggests, the result is obtained by the division of
the sum of rain depths recorded at different rain
gauge stations of the basin by the number of the
stations.
iP
NN i1
P
P1
N
1
P2 ..... Pi .....Pn
31. Thiessen Polygon Method:
This is the weighted mean method. The rainfall is
never uniform over the entire area of the basin or
catchment, but varies in intensity and duration
from place to place. Thus the rainfall recorded by
each rain gauge station should be weighted
according to the area, it represents. This method is
more suitable under the following conditions:
- For areas of moderate size.
- When rainfall stations are few compared to the size
of the basin.
- In moderate rugged areas.
32.
33. P
P1A1 P2 A2 .....PmAm
A1 A2 ..... Am
M
M
i
A
A
PP i
i1
Pi Ai
i1
Atotal
The ratio Ai/A is called the weightage factor of
station i
34. Thiessen Polygon Method Disadvantage:
The disadvantages of the
Thiessen method are its
inflexibility that is addition of
new station implies
construction of new polygon,
and it does not directly
account for
orographic influences of
rainfall.
35. isohyetal Method:
An isohyetal is a line joining places where the rainfall
amounts are equal on a rainfall map of a basin. An
isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall is
more accurate picture of the rainfall over the
basin. This method is more suited under the following
conditions:
- For hilly and rugged areas.
- For large areas over 5000 km2.
- For areas where the network of rainfall stations within
the storm area is sufficiently dense, isohyetal method
gives more accurate distribution of rainfall.
36. Isohyetal Method
• P1, P2, P3, …. , Pn – the values of theisohytes
• a1, a2, a3, …., a4 – are the inter isohytes area
respectively
• A – the total catchment area
• P - the mean precipitation over the catchment
A
a
a
2
...a
22
Pn1Pn
n12
P1P2 P2P3
1
P
37.
38.
m
x
NM N N
N
P ...
Pm
2
P
P2
1
x 1
Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to check the
data for continuing and consistency
◦ Missing data
◦ Record errors
Estimation of Missing Data
• Given annual precipitation values – P1, P2, P3,… Pm
at neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m
respectively
• The normal annual precipitation given by N1, N2,
N3,…, Nm, Ni… (including station X)
• To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X
39. Test for consistency record
• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the
neighbourhood of the problem station X is selected
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the
neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order
(from recent to old record)
the average values of the group base stations
starting from the latest record.
as shown on the next
figure
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is
observed that indicates a change in precipitation
regime of station X, i.e inconsistency.
• Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shon on
the next slide
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X Px
• Plot the Px against Pavg
and Pavg
40. (Double mass curve techniques)
Double Mass Curve Analysis
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2.50.5 1 1.5 2
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm
accumulatedannualrainfallofXstnin10^3cm
41. c
xcx
M
M
P P
• a
•Mc
c Ma
a
• Pcx – corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at stationX
• Px – Original recorded precp. at time period t1 at
• station X
• Mc – corrected slope of the double mass curve Ma –
42. A few commonly used methods are
Mass curve of rainfall
Hytograph
43. 0 – 8 8 – 16 16 – 24 24 – 32 32 – 40 40 – 48
Time, hours
Intensity,cm/hr
Hyetograph
- is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted in
chronological order
Hyetograph of a storm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
44.
45. 0 20 40 80 100 12060
Time, hour
accumulatedprecipitation,mm
Mass Curve of Rainfall:
The total accumulated percipitation is plotted against time
Mass curve of rainfall
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
46. RUNOFF:
It is a part of precipitation which is
transmitted through natural surface channels,
streams etc.
Runoff is overlandflow and interflow which enters
stream immediately after precipitation
Runoff includes
surface flow
interflow
groundwater flow
47. Runoff:
Runoff is defined as the portion of precipitation that
makes its way towards rivers or oceans as surface or
subsurface flow.
48. Classification of runoff according to source:
1. Surface runoff: Includes all overland flow as well as precipitation falling
directly onto
stream channels.
Overland flow: Portion of runoff that travels over the surface of the
ground to reach a stream channel and through the channel to the basin
outlet. This process occurs relatively quickly.
2.Subsurface runoff: Portion of runoff that travels under the ground to
reach a stream channel and to the basin outlet. It includes: a) interflow,
and b) groundwater runoff. Interflow: Portion of subsurface runoff that
travels laterally through the unsaturated zone or through a shallow
perched saturated zone towards a stream channel. This process is
slower than surface runoff.
Groundwater runoff: Portion of subsurface runoff that comes
from infiltration and subsequently percolation down to the water
table and eventually reaches a stream channel. This process
occurs relatively slowly
49. • Factors affecting Runoff:
1.Climate factors
a) Type of precipitation
b) Intensity of rainfall
c) Duration of rainfall
d) Area distribution of rainfall
e) Antecedent or Previous
precipitation
f) Other climatic factors that effect
• evaporation and
transpiration
2.Physiographic factors
a) Land use
b) Type of Soil
c) Area of the basin or catchment
d) Shape of the basin
e) Elevation
f) Slope
g) Orientation or Aspect
h) Type of drainage network
i) Indirect drainage
j) Artificial drainage
50. Estimation of Runoff:
1.Empirical Formulae (to find peak runoff)
a)Dicken’s formula
b)Ryve’s formula
c)Igles’s formula
d)Khosla’s formula
2.Rational Method
3.Unit Hydrograph Method
51. Runoff Calculations
Rational Formula:
This method was originally developed for urban catchments. Thus, the basic
assumptions for development of this method were made for urban
catchments. However, this method is fairly applicable to small agricultural
watersheds of 40 to 80 hectares size. The rational method takes into
account the following hydrological characteristics or processes: (1) rainfall
intensity, (2) rainfall duration, (3) rainfall frequency, (4) watershed area, (5)
hydrologic abstraction, and (6) runoff concentration.
Assumptions:
The Rational method is based on the assumption that constant intensity of
rainfall is uniformly spread over an area, and the effective rain falling on
the most remote part of the basin takes a certain period of time,
known as the time of concentration (Tc) to arrive at the basin outlet. If
the input rate of excess rainfall on the basin continues for the period of time
of concentration, then the part of the excess rain that fell in the most
remote part of the basin will just begin its outflow at the basin outlet and
with it, the runoff will reach its ultimate and the
52. RATIONAL METHOD
The Rational Method properly understood and applied can
produce satisfactory results for urban storm sewer and small on-
site detention design.
Rational Formula:
The Rational Method is based on the Rational Formula:
Q =CIA
Q = the maximum rate of runoff (cfs)
C = a runoff coefficient that is the ratio between the runoff
volume from an area and the average rate of rainfall depth
over a given duration for that area
I = average intensity of rainfall in inches per hour for a
duration equal to the time of concentration, tc
A = area (acres)
53. Factors affecting Evaporation:
Temperature - Warmer the evaporating surface, higher
the rate of evaporation.
Relative Humidity - drier air evaporates more water
than moist air
Wind Speed - When the winds are light, evaporation is
very low
Area of the Evaporating Surface – Larger areas of
evaporating surface increase the rate of evaporation
Air Pressure - Lower pressure on open surface of
the liquid results in the higher rate of
evaporation.
Composition of Water - Rate of evaporation is always
greater over fresh water than over salt water
54. Methods of measurement of evaporation:
A)Direct methods
Water Budget Technique
Lysimeter
oWeighing Type
oNon-weighing Type
B)Indirect methods
Aerodynamic method or Mass Transfer Method
Energy Budget Method
Penman Equation
Blaney & Criddle Method
Jensen Haise method
Hargreaves method or Pan Evaporation Method
55. Transpiration:
Transpiration is the process by which the water vapour
escapes from the living plant leaves and enters the
atmosphere.
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the combined processes by
which water is transferred to the atmosphere from
open water surfaces and vegetation
56. Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
Climatological factors like percentage sunshine
hours, wind speed, mean monthly temperature and
humidity.
Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage
growing season.
The moisture level in the soil.
Estimation of Evapotranspiration
Lysimeter
Class ‘A’ Pan Method
Penman Method
Hargreaves Method
Blaney & Criddle Method
57. Infiltration is the process of water entry into a soil from rainfall,
or irrigation.
Percolation is the process of water flow from one point to
another point within the soil.
Infiltration rate is the rate at which the water actually infiltrates
through the soil during a storm and it must be equal the
infiltration capacities or the rainfall rate, whichever is lesser.
Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which a soil in any
given condition is capable of absorbing water.
Infiltration
58. Factors affecting
infiltration
Condition of the land
surface (cracked,
crusted, compacted etc.)
Land vegetation cover
Surface soil characteristics
(grain size & gradation),
Storm characteristics
(intensity, duration &
magnitude)
Surface soil and water
temperature, chemical
properties of the water
and soil. Surface factors
59. Measurement of Infiltration
The rate of infiltration is initially high. It goes on reducing
with time and after some time it becomes steady. The
rate of infiltration for a soil is measured in the field as well
as in the laboratory. These are known as Infiltrometers
Types of Infiltrometers:
Flooding-type Infiltrometers
o Single-tube flooding Infiltrometers
o Double-tube flooding Infiltrometers
o Needle drip systems
oStand pipes
oSprinkler nozzles
oRotating boom
Sprinkling-type Infiltrometers or Rain Simulators
60. Infiltration indices:
The average
value of
infiltration is
called
Infiltration
Index.
Types:
ø - Index
W – Index
Where,
P = total storm precipitation (cm), R = total surface runoff (cm) ,
Ia = Initial losses(cm)
te = elapsed time period (in hours)
61. References
1. Madeeasy notes
2. https://www.nptel.ac.in › courses › 105 › 104
› 105104103
3. G. L. Asawa, Irrigation and Water Resources
Engineering.
4. B.C.Punmia, Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering