This document discusses key concepts in analyzing cultural representations of social groups. It argues that representations have real political and social impacts by shaping how groups see themselves and are seen by others. However, representations are always incomplete resolutions that use existing cultural forms, and different audiences can interpret them in varied ways. Representations also refer to other representations, and reality sets limits to what can be meaningfully represented, though reality can only be understood through representations. The document examines how representations help constitute the very social groups they depict, using the example of lesbian and gay identities.
This document discusses various representation theories and theorists that are relevant to analyzing media representations, including works by Dyer, Gramsci, Levi-Strauss, Mulvey, Berger, Butler, and Baudrillard. It also prompts the reader to consider how these concepts can be applied to analyze examples of representations in images and how representations in one's own media work reflect social and cultural values and choices.
This document outlines common stereotypes seen in representations of age, gender, ethnicity, physical ability, social class, region, and sexuality in US and UK television dramas. It discusses how characters within these groups are often portrayed through binary oppositions such as young vs old, strong vs weak, domestic vs professional, urban vs rural, and refined vs crude. The document advises the reader to analyze whether characters conform to or challenge these stereotypes when evaluating representations in television shows.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in representation theory, including how representations in media texts can reinforce dominant ideologies and stereotypes. It discusses approaches such as Marxism, feminism, and postmodernism for analyzing representations. Stereotypes are addressed as simplifying representations that provide shortcuts for meaning-making. The document aims to give students a basic understanding of evaluating representations in their coursework against these theoretical frameworks.
The document summarizes several media theorists and their perspectives on representation. It discusses Laura Mulvey's concept of the male gaze and how women are portrayed as passive objects in film. John Berger's theory that women appear for male objectification across media is also mentioned. Theories by Alvarado, Bell Hooks, Stuart Hall, and others address how ethnicity, race, gender, and class are commonly represented and interpreted in Western media through stereotypes, exoticism, and blurred associations. Narrative and audience reception theories are also briefly outlined.
Theories of Media Representation refers to how media constructs and presents versions of reality to audiences. All representations are constructions that show one perspective, not objective reality. Key thinkers like Marx, the Birmingham School, Hall, and Lacan viewed representation as a process involving power dynamics between media producers and audiences. Representation raises questions about whose perspectives are included or excluded in media and how audiences interpret these encodings.
This document summarizes Richard Dyer's analysis of stereotypes from his work "The Role of Stereotypes". Dyer examines Walter Lippmann's definition of stereotypes as necessary cognitive shortcuts but also notes their tendency to present order as absolute and reflect the power relations of society. Stereotypes invoke a false consensus while expressing the values and traditions of dominant social groups. They make invisible social categories visible and draw firm boundaries where in reality there are none, serving to maintain the status quo.
This document discusses various representation theories that will be applied in a magazine, including hegemony, stereotypes, and theories of gender and female representation. Hegemony refers to how dominant groups use institutions like media to maintain power by spreading ideologies. Stereotypes are social constructs that are often subverted in indie/rock music. Theories of empowered female representation and gender performance will also be applied to portray independent, active women and a subversion of traditional gender roles in the magazine's representations.
This document discusses various representation theories and theorists that are relevant to analyzing media representations, including works by Dyer, Gramsci, Levi-Strauss, Mulvey, Berger, Butler, and Baudrillard. It also prompts the reader to consider how these concepts can be applied to analyze examples of representations in images and how representations in one's own media work reflect social and cultural values and choices.
This document outlines common stereotypes seen in representations of age, gender, ethnicity, physical ability, social class, region, and sexuality in US and UK television dramas. It discusses how characters within these groups are often portrayed through binary oppositions such as young vs old, strong vs weak, domestic vs professional, urban vs rural, and refined vs crude. The document advises the reader to analyze whether characters conform to or challenge these stereotypes when evaluating representations in television shows.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in representation theory, including how representations in media texts can reinforce dominant ideologies and stereotypes. It discusses approaches such as Marxism, feminism, and postmodernism for analyzing representations. Stereotypes are addressed as simplifying representations that provide shortcuts for meaning-making. The document aims to give students a basic understanding of evaluating representations in their coursework against these theoretical frameworks.
The document summarizes several media theorists and their perspectives on representation. It discusses Laura Mulvey's concept of the male gaze and how women are portrayed as passive objects in film. John Berger's theory that women appear for male objectification across media is also mentioned. Theories by Alvarado, Bell Hooks, Stuart Hall, and others address how ethnicity, race, gender, and class are commonly represented and interpreted in Western media through stereotypes, exoticism, and blurred associations. Narrative and audience reception theories are also briefly outlined.
Theories of Media Representation refers to how media constructs and presents versions of reality to audiences. All representations are constructions that show one perspective, not objective reality. Key thinkers like Marx, the Birmingham School, Hall, and Lacan viewed representation as a process involving power dynamics between media producers and audiences. Representation raises questions about whose perspectives are included or excluded in media and how audiences interpret these encodings.
This document summarizes Richard Dyer's analysis of stereotypes from his work "The Role of Stereotypes". Dyer examines Walter Lippmann's definition of stereotypes as necessary cognitive shortcuts but also notes their tendency to present order as absolute and reflect the power relations of society. Stereotypes invoke a false consensus while expressing the values and traditions of dominant social groups. They make invisible social categories visible and draw firm boundaries where in reality there are none, serving to maintain the status quo.
This document discusses various representation theories that will be applied in a magazine, including hegemony, stereotypes, and theories of gender and female representation. Hegemony refers to how dominant groups use institutions like media to maintain power by spreading ideologies. Stereotypes are social constructs that are often subverted in indie/rock music. Theories of empowered female representation and gender performance will also be applied to portray independent, active women and a subversion of traditional gender roles in the magazine's representations.
This document provides an overview of feminist perspectives and concepts related to analyzing media through a feminist lens. It discusses key ideas such as the male gaze, patriarchy, and underrepresentation of women. Specifically, it introduces Laura Mulvey's influential theory of the male gaze and how mainstream cinema constructs viewers as male and objects women for the male gaze. It also notes some criticisms of Mulvey's theory, such as its focus on older films and lack of consideration for diverse audience viewpoints. Overall, the document outlines foundational feminist media concepts and theories.
The document discusses John Berger's analysis of gendered looking relations in Western art history from Ways of Seeing. Berger observed that men act and women appear, with men looking at women and women watching themselves being looked at by men. This dynamic determines gender relations and how women see themselves. According to Berger, women were often depicted in art as being aware of being seen by a male spectator, reflecting their submission to the male owner.
The document discusses several representation theories:
- Mulvey's male gaze theory suggests that female characters are displayed for male pleasure and are passive objects of the male gaze.
- Baudrillard's hyperreality theory argues that representations have replaced reality and images now bear no relation to the real world.
- Dyer believes stereotypes in media reinforce differences between people and legitimize inequality.
- Hall discusses how media propagate dominant social values and ideologies and segment society.
- Gramsci's concept of hegemony explains how representations are used to control people by portraying the elite as capable rulers.
- Levi-Strauss discusses binary opposites and representations of dominant and subordinate groups.
A2 Feminism and the Media part 1 (2020)
Stereotypes, Male Gaze, Symbolic annihilation, Bechdel Test, Beauty Myth, Objectfication and Dismemberment, Postfeminism
The document discusses several representation theories:
- Levi Strauss proposed the idea of "binary opposites" where understanding words depends on their opposite (e.g. understanding "villain" relates to differentiating it from "hero").
- Laura Mulvey's "Male Gaze Theory" suggests that women are viewed as sexual objects for male characters and audiences in media.
- John Berger also discussed "voyeurism" and said that "men act and women appear," being looked at by men and watching themselves be looked at.
- Tessa Perkins discussed stereotypes as not always negative or about minorities, and containing assumptions that can be challenged.
- Richard Dyer's representation
A level media theory knowledge organiser with examMrSouthworth
This document summarizes key concepts and theories from media studies, covering semiotics, narratology, genre theory, structuralism, postmodernism, representation, identity, feminism, audience reception, and media industries. It outlines important ideas from thinkers such as Roland Barthes, Tzvetan Todorov, Steve Neale, Stuart Hall, David Gauntlett, Judith Butler, Paul Gilroy, Albert Bandura, George Gerbner, Henry Jenkins, and David Hesmondhalgh. The concepts discussed include how meaning is constructed through signs and codes, how narratives and genres function, how identity and representation work, how audiences interpret media, and the political and economic contexts of media production and regulation.
The journal chapter discusses scholarship on media representations of gender and race. It explores how critical race theory has been used to examine media portrayals of masculinity, femininity, minorities, and Caucasians. Specifically, it looks at how black feminist thought challenges stereotypical media portrayals of black women as mammies or jezebels. The chapter also discusses how Asian and Latinas are often portrayed in stereotypical or sexualized ways in media and how this relates to a multicultural feminist perspective. It concludes by emphasizing the need for continued research on media representations of diverse groups.
The document discusses the representation of gender in the film Shatterproof. It notes that traditionally, femme fatales in film noir are represented as mysterious and seductive women who charm men into dangerous situations. However, in Shatterproof, the femme fatale Leo Newton subverts this by being bisexual. The document also discusses how Laura Mulvey's theory of the male gaze has traditionally framed women as objects of pleasure for the male viewer but that Shatterproof avoids this by representing the women Myra Frost and Leo Newton as strong-willed individuals rather than objects.
Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist who argued that human minds have universal structures across cultures. He is known for his theory of binary oppositions, which says that meaning comes from contrasting ideas like good vs evil, dark vs light, and protagonist vs antagonist. Examples of binary oppositions can be seen across genres in films, such as power dynamics in Schindler's List, dual identities in Spiderman, and contrasting personalities in Role Models. Levi-Strauss' work established structuralism and influenced fields like sociology and philosophy.
The document discusses the representation of gender in the film Shatterproof. It notes that in many noir films, the femme fatale is represented as a mysterious and seductive woman who charms men into dangerous situations. However, in Shatterproof, the femme fatale Leo Newton subverts this by being bisexual. The document also discusses how representations in media become familiar over time and feel natural. It analyzes how representations of women have changed from traditional noir films to neo-noir, with femmes fatales in neo-noir portrayed more as purely evil. Shatterproof further subverts expectations by representing the main women, Myra Frost and Leo Newton, as strong-willed individuals who dominate scre
This is the theory revision I created for my A2 Media group a couple of years ago. There is some general narrative theory, Media theory Laura Mulvey etc and Racial Representation theory, Stuart Hall, Paul Gilroy, bell hooks etc. This was based on Media and Collective Identity focusing on the representation of black culture in British Film and American Music Videos.
Stuart Hall outlines three strategies for contesting racial stereotypes in media representation:
1) Reversing stereotypes or substituting negative images with positive ones.
2) Attempting to make stereotypes work against themselves through humor or de-familiarization.
3) Celebrating diversity to expand representations beyond reductionist stereotypes.
However, he notes these strategies also risk appropriating difference or avoiding difficult issues.
The document discusses different approaches to representing reality in media, including psychological realism, naturalism, and documentary conventions. Psychological realism aims to portray individual experiences as universal, but often reflects the views of privileged groups. Naturalism focuses on depicting typical social experiences rather than claiming psychological universality. Documentaries rely on images, testimony, and documentation to substantiate their representations of reality, but any curation of evidence inherently makes an argument. The lines between different genres are blurred, and all representations of reality carry ideological assumptions.
This document discusses various perspectives in feminist film theory, including the male gaze, female gaze, oppositional gaze, and matrixial gaze. It explores how early feminist film theory, beginning with Laura Mulvey's concept of the male gaze, viewed women as sexual objects for the male viewer's pleasure. Later theories proposed the ideas of the female gaze, where women can objectify men, and the oppositional gaze, where marginalized groups critique stereotypical representations. The document also examines post-feminism and whether contemporary female characters truly move beyond earlier feminist politics.
Media Theories (Audiences and Narrative structures)Lou Barbone
The document outlines several media theories including Propp's character theory, Barthes' codes (enigma, semantic, action, referential, symbolic), Todorov's narrative theory of equilibrium, disruption, and realization, Levi-Strauss' concept of binary oppositions, audience classifications of ABC1 and C2DE, the hypodermic syringe theory of media influence, uses and gratifications theory, reception theory of preferred, negotiated, and oppositional readings, the two step flow model of opinion leaders influencing others, and Mulvey's concept of the male gaze in film.
The document discusses how to analyze the ideologies present in American superhero films. It explains that ideologies represent the dominant values and attitudes of a social group or culture. Superhero films often promote American ideologies like patriotism and depict American heroes as defending freedom and justice. The narratives, characters, and imagery in superhero films can subtly reinforce values like American exceptionalism and military strength. Analyzing representations, narratives, and binary opposites in films can provide insights into the ideologies they aim to promote or challenge.
This document provides an overview of various media theories that can be applied to analyzing representations in media. It discusses theorists such as Laura Mulvey, John Berger, Bell Hooks, Stuart Hall, Tricia Rose, Paul Gilroy, Michael Eric Dyson, Kobena Mercer, Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, and concepts like narrative theory, audience reception theory, and moral panic. Revision tips are provided, emphasizing applying these theories to coursework and case studies through references to different media like films, music videos, and magazines. Key ideas from different theorists are summarized, such as Hall's notions of "slave figure," "the native," and "the clown/entertainer" characterizations of
This document summarizes key concepts from several feminist theorists regarding gender representation:
1) Liesbet van Zoonen argues that gender is socially constructed and represented differently in media, often objectifying women. She disagrees that technology inherently empowers women.
2) Bell hooks introduced intersectionality - how gender, race, class intersect to create systems of oppression dominant in media representations. She advocates an "oppositional gaze" for black audiences.
3) Judith Butler's gender performativity theory holds that gender is created through the repetitive performance of gender roles, not an essential identity. This creates "gender trouble" for those outside heterosexual norms.
This document discusses issues with demanding that films represent gay characters and themes according to certain aesthetic ideals, which are often rooted in heterosexual values that marginalize homosexuality. It argues that the notion of a distinct "gay sensibility" is problematic, as oppression alone does not produce subcultural identities. Even films with sympathetic intentions, like The Detective, tend to reproduce dominant negative images of gayness due to the power of established cinematic conventions. The document also examines how James Dean's possible gay identity was necessarily suppressed in his film roles due to narrative and character constraints, limiting his ability to truly express gayness on screen.
As coursework assessment criteria a plain english guideDB3igs
The document provides guidance for students on various aspects of coursework assessment, including research, planning, organization, and drafting. It emphasizes the importance of thorough research into similar existing media products and potential target audiences to inform creative choices. Students must provide evidence of planning through shotlists, storyboards, and script drafting to showcase their preparation and organization. The highest marks require excellence in these areas as well as care in presentation and time management.
This document provides an overview of feminist perspectives and concepts related to analyzing media through a feminist lens. It discusses key ideas such as the male gaze, patriarchy, and underrepresentation of women. Specifically, it introduces Laura Mulvey's influential theory of the male gaze and how mainstream cinema constructs viewers as male and objects women for the male gaze. It also notes some criticisms of Mulvey's theory, such as its focus on older films and lack of consideration for diverse audience viewpoints. Overall, the document outlines foundational feminist media concepts and theories.
The document discusses John Berger's analysis of gendered looking relations in Western art history from Ways of Seeing. Berger observed that men act and women appear, with men looking at women and women watching themselves being looked at by men. This dynamic determines gender relations and how women see themselves. According to Berger, women were often depicted in art as being aware of being seen by a male spectator, reflecting their submission to the male owner.
The document discusses several representation theories:
- Mulvey's male gaze theory suggests that female characters are displayed for male pleasure and are passive objects of the male gaze.
- Baudrillard's hyperreality theory argues that representations have replaced reality and images now bear no relation to the real world.
- Dyer believes stereotypes in media reinforce differences between people and legitimize inequality.
- Hall discusses how media propagate dominant social values and ideologies and segment society.
- Gramsci's concept of hegemony explains how representations are used to control people by portraying the elite as capable rulers.
- Levi-Strauss discusses binary opposites and representations of dominant and subordinate groups.
A2 Feminism and the Media part 1 (2020)
Stereotypes, Male Gaze, Symbolic annihilation, Bechdel Test, Beauty Myth, Objectfication and Dismemberment, Postfeminism
The document discusses several representation theories:
- Levi Strauss proposed the idea of "binary opposites" where understanding words depends on their opposite (e.g. understanding "villain" relates to differentiating it from "hero").
- Laura Mulvey's "Male Gaze Theory" suggests that women are viewed as sexual objects for male characters and audiences in media.
- John Berger also discussed "voyeurism" and said that "men act and women appear," being looked at by men and watching themselves be looked at.
- Tessa Perkins discussed stereotypes as not always negative or about minorities, and containing assumptions that can be challenged.
- Richard Dyer's representation
A level media theory knowledge organiser with examMrSouthworth
This document summarizes key concepts and theories from media studies, covering semiotics, narratology, genre theory, structuralism, postmodernism, representation, identity, feminism, audience reception, and media industries. It outlines important ideas from thinkers such as Roland Barthes, Tzvetan Todorov, Steve Neale, Stuart Hall, David Gauntlett, Judith Butler, Paul Gilroy, Albert Bandura, George Gerbner, Henry Jenkins, and David Hesmondhalgh. The concepts discussed include how meaning is constructed through signs and codes, how narratives and genres function, how identity and representation work, how audiences interpret media, and the political and economic contexts of media production and regulation.
The journal chapter discusses scholarship on media representations of gender and race. It explores how critical race theory has been used to examine media portrayals of masculinity, femininity, minorities, and Caucasians. Specifically, it looks at how black feminist thought challenges stereotypical media portrayals of black women as mammies or jezebels. The chapter also discusses how Asian and Latinas are often portrayed in stereotypical or sexualized ways in media and how this relates to a multicultural feminist perspective. It concludes by emphasizing the need for continued research on media representations of diverse groups.
The document discusses the representation of gender in the film Shatterproof. It notes that traditionally, femme fatales in film noir are represented as mysterious and seductive women who charm men into dangerous situations. However, in Shatterproof, the femme fatale Leo Newton subverts this by being bisexual. The document also discusses how Laura Mulvey's theory of the male gaze has traditionally framed women as objects of pleasure for the male viewer but that Shatterproof avoids this by representing the women Myra Frost and Leo Newton as strong-willed individuals rather than objects.
Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist who argued that human minds have universal structures across cultures. He is known for his theory of binary oppositions, which says that meaning comes from contrasting ideas like good vs evil, dark vs light, and protagonist vs antagonist. Examples of binary oppositions can be seen across genres in films, such as power dynamics in Schindler's List, dual identities in Spiderman, and contrasting personalities in Role Models. Levi-Strauss' work established structuralism and influenced fields like sociology and philosophy.
The document discusses the representation of gender in the film Shatterproof. It notes that in many noir films, the femme fatale is represented as a mysterious and seductive woman who charms men into dangerous situations. However, in Shatterproof, the femme fatale Leo Newton subverts this by being bisexual. The document also discusses how representations in media become familiar over time and feel natural. It analyzes how representations of women have changed from traditional noir films to neo-noir, with femmes fatales in neo-noir portrayed more as purely evil. Shatterproof further subverts expectations by representing the main women, Myra Frost and Leo Newton, as strong-willed individuals who dominate scre
This is the theory revision I created for my A2 Media group a couple of years ago. There is some general narrative theory, Media theory Laura Mulvey etc and Racial Representation theory, Stuart Hall, Paul Gilroy, bell hooks etc. This was based on Media and Collective Identity focusing on the representation of black culture in British Film and American Music Videos.
Stuart Hall outlines three strategies for contesting racial stereotypes in media representation:
1) Reversing stereotypes or substituting negative images with positive ones.
2) Attempting to make stereotypes work against themselves through humor or de-familiarization.
3) Celebrating diversity to expand representations beyond reductionist stereotypes.
However, he notes these strategies also risk appropriating difference or avoiding difficult issues.
The document discusses different approaches to representing reality in media, including psychological realism, naturalism, and documentary conventions. Psychological realism aims to portray individual experiences as universal, but often reflects the views of privileged groups. Naturalism focuses on depicting typical social experiences rather than claiming psychological universality. Documentaries rely on images, testimony, and documentation to substantiate their representations of reality, but any curation of evidence inherently makes an argument. The lines between different genres are blurred, and all representations of reality carry ideological assumptions.
This document discusses various perspectives in feminist film theory, including the male gaze, female gaze, oppositional gaze, and matrixial gaze. It explores how early feminist film theory, beginning with Laura Mulvey's concept of the male gaze, viewed women as sexual objects for the male viewer's pleasure. Later theories proposed the ideas of the female gaze, where women can objectify men, and the oppositional gaze, where marginalized groups critique stereotypical representations. The document also examines post-feminism and whether contemporary female characters truly move beyond earlier feminist politics.
Media Theories (Audiences and Narrative structures)Lou Barbone
The document outlines several media theories including Propp's character theory, Barthes' codes (enigma, semantic, action, referential, symbolic), Todorov's narrative theory of equilibrium, disruption, and realization, Levi-Strauss' concept of binary oppositions, audience classifications of ABC1 and C2DE, the hypodermic syringe theory of media influence, uses and gratifications theory, reception theory of preferred, negotiated, and oppositional readings, the two step flow model of opinion leaders influencing others, and Mulvey's concept of the male gaze in film.
The document discusses how to analyze the ideologies present in American superhero films. It explains that ideologies represent the dominant values and attitudes of a social group or culture. Superhero films often promote American ideologies like patriotism and depict American heroes as defending freedom and justice. The narratives, characters, and imagery in superhero films can subtly reinforce values like American exceptionalism and military strength. Analyzing representations, narratives, and binary opposites in films can provide insights into the ideologies they aim to promote or challenge.
This document provides an overview of various media theories that can be applied to analyzing representations in media. It discusses theorists such as Laura Mulvey, John Berger, Bell Hooks, Stuart Hall, Tricia Rose, Paul Gilroy, Michael Eric Dyson, Kobena Mercer, Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, and concepts like narrative theory, audience reception theory, and moral panic. Revision tips are provided, emphasizing applying these theories to coursework and case studies through references to different media like films, music videos, and magazines. Key ideas from different theorists are summarized, such as Hall's notions of "slave figure," "the native," and "the clown/entertainer" characterizations of
This document summarizes key concepts from several feminist theorists regarding gender representation:
1) Liesbet van Zoonen argues that gender is socially constructed and represented differently in media, often objectifying women. She disagrees that technology inherently empowers women.
2) Bell hooks introduced intersectionality - how gender, race, class intersect to create systems of oppression dominant in media representations. She advocates an "oppositional gaze" for black audiences.
3) Judith Butler's gender performativity theory holds that gender is created through the repetitive performance of gender roles, not an essential identity. This creates "gender trouble" for those outside heterosexual norms.
This document discusses issues with demanding that films represent gay characters and themes according to certain aesthetic ideals, which are often rooted in heterosexual values that marginalize homosexuality. It argues that the notion of a distinct "gay sensibility" is problematic, as oppression alone does not produce subcultural identities. Even films with sympathetic intentions, like The Detective, tend to reproduce dominant negative images of gayness due to the power of established cinematic conventions. The document also examines how James Dean's possible gay identity was necessarily suppressed in his film roles due to narrative and character constraints, limiting his ability to truly express gayness on screen.
As coursework assessment criteria a plain english guideDB3igs
The document provides guidance for students on various aspects of coursework assessment, including research, planning, organization, and drafting. It emphasizes the importance of thorough research into similar existing media products and potential target audiences to inform creative choices. Students must provide evidence of planning through shotlists, storyboards, and script drafting to showcase their preparation and organization. The highest marks require excellence in these areas as well as care in presentation and time management.
This document provides a checklist and plan of tasks for a student group to follow when creating a blog to document their research, planning, production and evaluation of a short film opening for a media coursework assignment. It outlines key areas and topics to cover in blog posts such as researching film openings conventions, target audiences, and organizing production elements like actors, locations and props. Specific post ideas are listed with suggested authors and deadlines. The goal is to provide comprehensive evidence of the group's work to maximize their marks across the assessment criteria of research and planning, production and evaluation.
This document provides a list of film and media theories that can be applied in exam answers and coursework. It includes over 20 theories within the categories of industry conventions/practice, audience, narrative theories, semiotics, hegemony, postmodernism, feminist critiques, genre, and gender performance. Applying these theories would help students raise their analysis, argumentation, use of terminology, and communication skills.
This document outlines the assessment objectives and grade boundaries for coursework in an AS level media course. It is divided into three sections - AO2, AO3, and AO4 - which are each worth a different percentage of the overall coursework mark. Each section considers research and planning, production, and evaluation. Level 5 is the highest grade, equivalent to an A, while Level 0/1 is the lowest. The document provides guidance on including research findings, draft work, and influences on choices in coursework to achieve higher marks. It stresses the importance of research and planning for a strong evaluation.
The document outlines the structure and requirements for an AS exam paper on cinema. It is 2 hours long and contains 2 questions. Students have 30 minutes to view and take notes on a US TV drama, then write an essay for 45 minutes on camera work, editing, sound and mise-en-scene. For the second 45 minutes, students choose between essays analyzing the interplay between film industry institutions and audiences or sample exam questions from June and November 2015.
The document provides an overview of the CIE AS Level exam for Media Studies. It consists of two sections - a 30 minute viewing and analysis of a TV drama clip, followed by a 45 minute essay on how meaning is created in the clip. The second section involves a 45 minute essay answering one of two questions on the Cinema Industry. The document outlines the marking scheme and criteria for both sections, including levels of achievement and grade boundaries.
This short document provides a link to a blog post from 2015 that contains links to actual websites related to 2016 A2 digipaks. The document repeats the phrase "A2 digipaks 2016" and "for links to the actual sites!!!" to emphasize the topic and purpose of looking at the blog post.
This document provides a link to a blog post that contains links to A2 history websites for 2016. The blog post, found on asmediablogs.blogspot.com, includes links to various websites related to the 2016 A2 history curriculum. Visitors to the blog are directed to the post for links to the actual history websites.
Year 8 into 9 media v2 option course bookletDB3igs
The Media Studies course in Year 9 develops students' creative thinking, communication, and evaluation skills through both research and practical production work. Students will choose an initial individual or group production involving launching a new product or magazine ad. Later, students will work in groups to create an extract from a new TV program and analyze all production pieces. Students will also learn video editing skills by creating a spoof TV ad. The course helps students develop transferable skills like teamwork, leadership, research abilities, and skills with software like Final Cut Pro X. Students can continue Media Studies to GCSE and A-Levels, but the Year 9 course is not required to take the GCSE. Past students have pursued various media-related careers in fields like
The document discusses representation in media and how media present the real world. It introduces key concepts around how representations are constructed, including selection, organization, and focus. It asks questions about who/what is represented, how the representation is created, who created it, and why. It discusses gatekeepers in media and the constructionist approach to representation, where meaning is created through the relationship between producers, text, and audience. It concludes with a quote about how representations determine treatment and a task analyzing representations of oneself in moving images.
This document provides a framework for analyzing representations in media based on Richard Dyer's work. It outlines four key questions: 1) What is represented in terms of characters, subject matter, and place? 2) How are social groups represented and what stereotypes are reinforced? 3) Who is responsible for the representations? 4) How might different audiences respond to and make meaning from the representations? For each question, it gives examples of what to consider such as character demographics, production companies, and how representations relate to genres and target audiences.
This document discusses theories about how media audiences are influenced. It describes the "hypodermic needle" or "effects" model, which suggests the media directly influences audiences like a syringe injecting ideas. It also discusses the cultivation theory, which is that repeated media exposure shapes audiences' views of social reality over time. The document notes criticisms of theories that portray audiences as passive masses, pointing instead to more active audience interpretations and the two-step flow of influence through opinion leaders. It suggests modern versions look at how moral panics can emerge from media coverage. Overall, the document examines debates around the power and passiveness of audiences in relation to media effects and influence.
The document discusses stereotypes of teenagers in media representations. It summarizes Richard Dyer's theory that stereotypes reduce diversity to a few exaggerated characteristics applied to all members of a social group. The document also discusses how stereotypes can reinforce certain values and assumptions through selective portrayal in media. Several theories are presented on how stereotypes function as a media shorthand and how constant exposure can subtly influence audiences' attitudes over time through cultivation and cultural effects. Examples of common teenage stereotypes in films and television are provided.
Representations are images, sounds or combinations that stand in for reality. Early forms of representation date back 32,000 years, showing an intrinsic human urge. Representations can be stereotypical or counter stereotypical, conforming to or challenging dominant ideologies. Theories suggest representations are how societies understand themselves and construct shared realities and identities, though some argue they are manipulated by those in power to maintain the status quo.
The document discusses representation in media and outlines several key theorists' perspectives on representation. It defines representation and discusses how representations have evolved over time. Several theorists are summarized, including their views that representations shape ideology and social order, and how gender and other groups are often represented through stereotypes that serve the interests of those in power. Later theorists discussed believe representations have replaced reality and audiences no longer distinguish between the two.
Lara Croft and other female protagonists in computer games and online present ambiguous representations of gender. While their bodies are highly sexualized in a traditionally feminine way, their abilities and roles take on more traditionally masculine traits as fighters and heroes. This reflects how gender is conceptualized in contemporary times, with more fluidity between masculine and feminine traits. New technologies may provide new models for thinking about gender that is not strictly binary but more complex and multi-faceted. Figures like Lara Croft exaggerate feminine bodily features while also possessing qualities usually coded as masculine, making visible the constructed nature of gender symbols and categories.
The essay discusses T.S. Eliot's modernist poem "The Waste Land" and how it challenges conventional understandings of language and meaning. The fragmented text seems to leave something absent that readers try to find. Critics have looked outside the text for clues to its meaning. The poem depicts a barren landscape where language consists of a disordered pile of broken images, calling into question language's ability to represent reality in a meaningful way.
INTRODUCTION 319 too emotional to be good leaders) are a.docxnormanibarber20063
INTRODUCTION | 319
too emotional to be good leaders) are also labeled a s "natural" and unchangeable, making any
attempt to Identify and challenge them almost impossible.
Fortunately, by shedding light on the social construction of gender, the feminist, L G B ,
transgender, and intersex communities have disproven the assumption that biology determines
gender, thereby disentangling it from the notion that gender is "natural" (see vi/ebsite for further
resources). For example, if gender roles were "natural," they would manifest similarly in societies
all over the world, but a global a n a l y s i s reveals a rather diverse understanding and expression
of gender a c r o s s societies (Nanda, 2000). Similarly, if these roles were set and unchangeable
they would be consistent throughout history, and yet within U.S. history alone the notion of what
it m e a n s to be a man or woman has changed over time due to political, economic, and social
influences. A s s u c h , what is perceived a s "real" regarding gender roles is actually a manifestation
of certain rules and expectations put on all of u s by the macro gendered power structure.
A s e c o n d core characteristic of gender roles is that they are based on heteronormativity, which
refers to the normalizing of heterosexuality and the pathologizing of being lesbian, gay, bisexual,
or queer. In my c l a s s e s I often conduct an exercise where we divide into groups and develop
lists of what it m e a n s to "act like a ' m a n ' " or "act like a 'lady.'" For the nineteen years I have been
doing this exercise, every element of what it h a s meant to "act like a 'lady'" has been connected
to the heterosexual male g a z e . Looking pretty, acting feminine, knowing how to cook, wanting
children, etc. are not at all problematic of and by themselves, but w h e n analyzed through a lens
of gender critique it is apparent that they are consistently tied to heterosexual relationships and
the need for women to appeal to heterosexual men. T h e connection between heterosexuality
and what it m e a n s to be a real w o m a n implies that lesbians and bisexual women are not actually
w o m e n , are a threat to these gender roles for their lack of compliance, and therefore should
be met with contempt and even violence. S u z a n n e Pharr (1988) suggests that homophobia
is a w e a p o n of s e x i s m precisely b e c a u s e of the relationship between gender role conformity
and what Adrienne Rich (1986) termed "compulsory heterosexuality." T h e powerful connection
between gender roles and homophobia is d i s c u s s e d by Blumenfeld in the next section (selection
77 and Introduction to Section 6 ) .
A third important characteristic of gender roles is that masculine and feminine roles are
diametrically opposed, a s opposites in a binary, and hierarchically positioned, a s superior or
inferior. For every characteristic that students defined a s "masculine," for example being tou.
Essay on Truth | Truth Essay for Students and Children in English - A .... Truth Telling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words. Essay 5. Truth and Historical Narrative | PDF | Argument | Truth. Telling The Truth, Taking Sides (Essays for N Ram). Sojourner Truth Essay - PHDessay.com. The Truth. TOEFL Writing Essay Examples Analysis - Telling the Truth. Wisdom Finds Truth | Essay and Answer Writing | CSE. Should We Always Tell the Truth Essay Example | StudyHippo.com. ESSAY What is Truth | Logic | Truth. Argumentative essay example short Truth or Consequences .... Narrative Essay: Truth essay. Inconvenient Truth Essay. AKCCL | The Unexpected Truth About Best Essay Help. Saying the truth essay. What does truth mean Essay? Free Essay Example. Truth and Truth-Telling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Essay on truth is bitter but still it triumphs - persepolisthesis.web .... essay questions nothing but the truth block4. A Dream Come True Essay - CarleykruwWright.
This document provides an introduction and literature review for a final year project examining the commodification of strong female characters and open texts in Hollywood science fiction films. It discusses how science fiction films can portray oppositional ideas through their temporal and spatial displacement from reality. However, these progressive elements are often counterbalanced with reassurances to dominant ideology, creating contradictory narratives and open texts. The commodification of the strong female character in science fiction is explored, using the examples of Sarah Connor in Terminator and Ellen Ripley in Alien to show how these characters were prototypical yet still upheld dominant ideology through contradiction and instability in the narratives.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in representation theory for analyzing media texts, including how representations can reinforce ideologies, be evaluated using feminist theory and postmodern approaches, and rely on stereotypes. It discusses representations in terms of Marxism, feminism, postmodernism, and stereotypes. The aims are to understand how to evaluate coursework against representation theory and recognize how media shows societal aspects through careful mediation of representations.
The document discusses various concepts related to narrative theory, including binary oppositions, levels of narrative, and frames. It examines how some films by David Lynch seem to contradict common assumptions about causality, linearity, and character identity in narratives. The document also discusses the concepts of multiplicity, becoming, simulation, and rupturing narratives. It provides examples of artworks that demonstrate these concepts, challenging traditional understandings of narratives.
This document discusses various theories around identity and representation. It explores how identity is constructed through systems of representation rather than reflecting an inherent reality. Representation is shown to produce meanings and understandings of the world rather than being a neutral reflection. Different artists are discussed who investigate ideas of fluid and performed identity, including Cindy Sherman who adopts various roles to show how identity is constructed. The male gaze and objectification of the female body are also examined as ways that representation can shape understandings of gender and sexuality.
unil+Chrezgt q + . r t f i c t u r e s a n d P o w e .docxMARRY7
This document provides a summary of Edward Said's discussion of different conceptions of power and their relationship to visual representations. It discusses two basic pictures of power that Foucault offers - power exerted over things, and power certain persons exercise over others. These models underlie two traditions of thinking about the power of pictures: illusionism and realism. Illusionism involves the power of pictures to deceive or amaze beholders, while realism involves the power of pictures to show truth and act as a transparent window onto reality. The document examines these conceptions and their intersections with theories of visual culture, spectacle, and surveillance.
This document discusses social representations and empowerment from an indigenous perspective. It addresses key concepts like social distance and stigma, and how social representations shape our realities and communities. The document uses a cartoon and song lyrics to illustrate how media can portray empowering representations of indigenous cultures that help reduce social distance. Questions are raised about selecting representations and their impact, and whether cultures should have their own social psychologies reflecting their worldviews.
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work. The service utilizes a bidding system and promises original, high-quality content.
The document analyzes the film Fight Club and its themes of resistance and anti-capitalism through the development of the characters Jack and Tyler Durden. It finds that as Jack develops his alter ego Tyler Durden, he is personifying mankind's resistive nature. Throughout the film, Jack becomes disenchanted with the anti-capitalist actions of Tyler Durden and his group Project Mayhem. The document aims to determine what the film says about power structures and anti-capitalism through examining it using Marxist and other critical theories.
The historical documentary film Through A Lens, Darkly, about the impact of Black photography, is both an archive and an event. This document analyzes how it works and why, as history, political expression, and media art.
This document discusses various concepts related to representation of gender in media texts. It first defines representation and key aspects of identity that are represented, such as gender. It then discusses Laura Mulvey's concept of the "Male Gaze" and how film and media can access a viewer's subconscious desires through representations that entice the male audience. Finally, it discusses how all representations are constructed rather than objective reality and how gender is often represented through stereotypical portrayals of women in dresses and men in suits throughout media texts.
I need response for both posts. 150 words for each one please..docxamirawaite
I need response for both posts. 150 words for each one please.
first one :
The Discussion Board: Women Should
The chosen picture that will be analyzed in this discussion board is the "Women Should". In this context, the picture portrays a situation on what a woman is expected to do in a patriarchal society, where their male counterparts dominate.
From the picture the, mouth of the woman in the portrait has been cello taped, indicating that women are not allowed to say anything, anywhere and to anybody. This illustrates that the society has subjected women to something like a prison, where their opinions or the right to share their ideas on the management of their affairs is not welcome. They are meant to take orders from others, their male counterparts. The words in the cello-tape are a composition of what the society expects from women. They show the prescribed position or roles in the society, which are determined by their male counterparts.
In the general coloring of the picture, behind the woman shows some darkness. This tends to point to the fact that it has never been easy in the liberation struggle of women, and it also shows the challenges post by what the society expects of women. However, at the front view, there is bright lighting pointing to hope at the end of the entire struggle.
From the front view, the position of the eyes of the woman in the picture shows that the women are focused on a given goal. There is no moving or sliding backward in the liberation efforts. In this liberation struggle, the first point of focus is securing for women the right to make their own decisions. Once they shall be having the personal decision making power or right, every other element of liberation shall fall into place. Also in the picture, their some sense of general concern for the welfare and right of women, from the society itself as, especially from women themselves, as shown by the presence of the UN Women logo, as one of the contents in the portrait, which will make the trivial compelling of the women to live by societal expectations inconsequential.
Reply One: In Relation to the Movie
As it is observable from the movie In Reverse, in the desire to bring into context of the contemporary world, the detectable and undetectable effects of war, it can be conclusively be said that war has adverse effects on the life of human beings (Gleick, 2014). The most affected being the children, due to their vulnerable nature (Garbarino, 2001). The adults, who find themselves as victims of war, as the targeted also, suffer a lot. To stop the war in the world collective responsibility must be initiated, from across the spectrum of the world leadership (Thakur, 2016). This will only be possible if the leadership and the people express political will and put the interest of the people at heart.
Reply Two: In Relation to the Picture
The society has been considered to be biased on the side of women due to huge regulation and restriction or lim ...
Similar to Introduction to-representation-richard-dyer (17)
This document provides an overview of fundamental shot types and camera techniques used in media studies. It defines shots like extreme close-up, close-up, mid-shot, long shot, and establishing shot. It also covers camera angles like high, low, and Dutch angles. Common shots discussed include point-of-view shots, cutaway shots, and over-the-shoulder shots. The document also mentions camera movements such as pan, tilt, track, dolly, and zoom.
Yardie, Idris Elba's directorial debut film, underperformed at the box office despite a marketing campaign that prominently featured Elba. The film earned $1.5 million globally across three territories, failing to grow beyond its initial 225 theater release in the UK. While the marketing utilized Elba's star power through media appearances and social media, his limited on-screen role and absence from the main poster may have reduced its appeal. The film's focus on black British characters and use of Jamaican patois could also have presented barriers to broader commercial success.
This document analyzes the marketing and distribution strategies for the 2019 film "Yesterday." It begins by summarizing the film's budget, box office returns, and ratings. It then examines the poster and trailer, discussing how they position the central protagonist and use music intertextuality to appeal to different audiences. Specifically, it notes the poster's reference to The Beatles and use of Ed Sheeran to draw younger viewers. Overall, the summary analyzes how the film's marketing employed nostalgia and popular music to broad commercial success.
The document provides marketing strategies and context for the release of an upcoming film. It discusses leveraging the names of the director and past films, targeting specific demographics. It notes the film's release in over 60 territories including China through a co-production deal. While set in the US, the film is expected to have stronger UK appeal. The marketing budget is triple the production budget of $26 million due to pushing up the release date to the summer to avoid legal issues over song rights.
This document provides information about the United Nations Security Council, including its origins, aims, and methods for maintaining peace. The UN Security Council was established after World War II to replace the League of Nations and maintain international peace and security. It has 15 members, including 5 permanent members with veto power, and determines actions in response to threats to peace such as sanctions, peacekeeping missions, or authorizing military action as a last resort. The effectiveness of the UN Security Council is mixed, as interventions have had failures like in Somalia but successes such as stabilizing Sierra Leone.
This document provides teaching resources on the United Nations Security Council for a GCSE Government and Politics course. It includes two activities for students: 1) analyzing the UN's role in the Rwandan genocide through the film Hotel Rwanda, and 2) taking on the role of a UN official tasked with recommending actions in response to a rogue nuclear state. Background information, instructions, and guidance are provided for teachers to implement both activities in the classroom.
NATO was established in 1949 by 12 North American and European countries to deter Soviet expansionism following World War 2. It has since grown to 28 member countries. NATO aims to safeguard members' freedom and security through both political and military means, including responding militarily if another member is attacked. Notable NATO missions have included operations in Afghanistan and Kosovo, as well as air policing and counter-piracy operations. While primarily a military alliance, NATO also uses non-military programs like the Partnership for Peace to build cooperation.
The document discusses migration, which refers to the movement of people between places. There are various factors that influence migration, including economic, social, political, and environmental push factors that compel people to leave their home countries, as well as pull factors that attract people to other locations. Common push factors include war, persecution, poverty, and natural disasters, while pull factors include job opportunities, stability, freedom, and better living conditions. The document examines different types of migrants like refugees, asylum seekers, internally displaced people, and economic migrants, and the challenges around migration faced by governments and organizations.
The document provides additional examples of actions taken by the United Nations (UN) and NATO to resolve conflicts. It summarizes UN involvement in the Rwandan genocide and civil war in Liberia, noting the UN failed to prevent mass killings in Rwanda but helped bring peace to Liberia after sending peacekeepers. NATO actions in Afghanistan and against ISIS in Iraq and Syria aimed to combat terrorism but had mixed results, defeating opponents militarily but failing to fully establish stability.
Student guidance the northern ireland political partiesDB3igs
The document provides information on several political parties in Northern Ireland, including the Alliance Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), Sinn Féin, and summarizes their histories, key aims, and policies on the economy, education, the environment, and immigration. Each party section outlines the party's founding, leadership, and stances on building a prosperous and united/stable Northern Ireland society.
The document defines key terms related to government and politics in Northern Ireland. It provides definitions for over 50 terms, including political parties, government systems, education, economy, society and identity terms that are important for understanding politics in Northern Ireland. Some of the key terms defined include the Belfast Agreement, devolution, the Northern Ireland Assembly, transferred and reserved matters, sectarianism, and unionist and nationalist communities.
This document discusses the role of the media in a democracy. It examines different types of media like television, radio, newspapers, and social media. It explores how politicians use media to influence voters through staged events, photos, social media, and by claiming bias. The document also analyzes theories about the power of media, including the hypodermic needle theory, uses and gratifications theory, and cultural effects theory. Finally, it discusses the rights and responsibilities of media to inform voters and hold leaders accountable, as well as arguments for and against greater government regulation of media.
This resource pack contains two activities to help teach students about political parties in Northern Ireland. The first activity involves designing a questionnaire to assess whether political views are left or right wing. Students will create a scale of responses from right to left wing for statements about political issues. The second activity divides students into groups for each major Northern Ireland party. Each group must design and record a party political broadcast outlining their party's policies on the economy, education, environment and immigration. The pack provides instructions, exemplar questions, and background information to help teachers implement the activities.
This resource pack contains activities to support teaching political ideas and concepts as part of the CCEA GCSE Unit 1 course. The first activity involves imagining being stranded on a desert island and establishing laws and a system of government. The second activity involves students grouping statements about democracy or dictatorship and justifying their categorization. The pack provides templates, instructions, and background information to support teachers in implementing the activities.
This resource pack contains two activities to help teach students about political parties in Northern Ireland. The first activity involves designing a questionnaire to assess whether political views are left or right wing. Students will create a scale of responses from right to left wing for statements about political issues. The second activity divides students into groups for each major Northern Ireland party. Each group must design and record a party political broadcast outlining their party's policies on the economy, education, environment and immigration. The pack provides instructions, exemplar questions, and background information to help teachers implement the activities.
Political parties seek to win voter support by outlining policies in a manifesto. They can generally be categorized as left-wing or right-wing on economic and social issues. The document then provides a table comparing the views of the Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrats, and Green parties on issues like the economy, education, the environment, and immigration. It also summarizes some differences between parties in Northern Ireland like the DUP, Sinn Féin, UUP, SDLP, and Alliance on these same issues.
The Equality Commission for Northern Ireland was established in 1998 as part of the Good Friday Agreement to promote equality and end discrimination. It aims to protect nine characteristics: age, disability, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, marriage/civil partnership, pregnancy/maternity, race, religion/belief, and sex. The Commission works to ensure public bodies promote equal opportunities and do not discriminate based on the nine protected characteristics. It provides information, advice, research, and enforcement to promote equality and challenge inequality in Northern Ireland. The Commission publishes annual reviews evaluating its effectiveness, detailing activities undertaken and progress made towards its targets in areas like championing equality, challenging inequalities, and applying equality law.
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Here are some key terms, points, and sources I noted from the presentation:
KEY TERMS:
- UNAMSIL
- ECOMOG
- RUF
- UNOMSIL
- UNIOSIL
KEY POINTS:
- Civil war began in 1991 and involved various factions including the RUF rebels
- Peace agreements like the Lomé Accord failed to hold initially
- UN authorized its first peacekeeping mission with a mandate to use force in 1999
- UNAMSIL helped disarm combatants and restore stability
KEY DETAILS:
- UK intervention helped turn the tide of the war
- Sanctions on Liberia's "blood diamonds" reduced
This document provides guidance for students creating a promotional package across multiple social media platforms for a musical artist. It instructs students to research conventions of different social platforms and analyze the styles of their chosen artist and other examples. Students are told to summarize their findings in an illustrated presentation and identify conventions that will influence their original social media posts. They are to develop a longlist of at least 20 planned posts over 2 months including fan interaction and a proposed viral contest. Examples of past successful student projects are provided for inspiration.
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Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
RPMS TEMPLATE FOR SCHOOL YEAR 2023-2024 FOR TEACHER 1 TO TEACHER 3
Introduction to-representation-richard-dyer
1. 5.1
5.2
viii lllustrations
4.26 Lesbianfeministtypification:JEB, 'Mara. BroomesIsland,
Maryland.1976'
VeronicaLake:startlinglyunrealsensuality
Hard-boiledlooks:Dick Powellin MarderMy Sweet
(usA 1945)
Butchdyke(Ruth Gillette)confrontshard-boiledhero
(HumphreyBogart)in In a LonelyP/ace(USA 1950)
SmartbutchJo(BarbaraStanwyck)in A Wctlkon the Wild
,Slde(USA 1962)
5.5 Viciousdyke(Kate Murtagh) puts hypodermicinto hero
(RobertMitchum) in FarewellMy Lolely (USA 1976) 62
5.6 Fastidiousqueen(PeterLorre) andimmaculatefemme
fatale(Mary Astor) in TheMalteseFalcon(USA l94l) 63
5.7 Fastidiousand immaculateyoungmen(FarleyGranger
(right) and JohnDall) with mentor (JamesStewart)in
Rope(USA 1948) 64
5.8 Elegantqueen(Clifton Webb)and luxury milieu in Zaara
(usA 1944) 65
6.1 Victim'.PH and Mickie, queerfalseleads 73
(t.2 Victim:Fullbrook, Callowayand Farr,all queer 14
13.I Orderlyrows,full light, debate thewhite meetingin Simba 132
I3.2 Looseformation,darkness,yelling- the blackuprisingin
Simba 134
13.3 A marginalbut foregroundedblack figtre in Jezebel 137
13.4Jazebel:the red (dark)dressat thewhite ball 139
14.I Li ianGish 150
f4.2 LarsHansonand Lillian Gish in TheScarletLetter
(usA1926) 153
|5.I fllsic(Lillian Gish)and the Klan in TheBirth oJa Nation
(lers) 160
f5.2 15,7'l'hcBirthd a Nallorz:Silas(GeorgeSiegmann)and
lilsic(li amccnlalgements) 168-69
I shoLrkllikc to thlnk lnd ackttowlcdgethe followingfor stillsor other
ilfrrsllrrtitrrrsrltlrl Slills,I)ostcrsittrclDcsign(ligures4.1,4.'7.4.8,4.9,4.14,
4,|5.4,|7.4,Itt,4.20,4.2l,4.22,5,l.5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5.5.6,5.7.5,11.61.(,'?,
ll,l, L1,.1,1.1.,1.1.1,4),,llilt tutl (illd llitg litoks (ligttltx'1,.rl. 'l 'J'1,4 .15,
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41
56
57
59
6l
Chapter1
lntroduction
The essayscollectedhere all deal, through particular instances,with the
cultural representationof socialgroupings.This is 'imagesof analysisof
the kind thit hasburgeonedin the pasttwentyyears,startingwith work on
women and black people,spreadingto other marginalizedor oppressed
groups,suchas ethnicminorities,lesbiansand gay men, the disabledand
ihe aged,and now beginning,with studieson men,to encompassdominant
or majority groups.Theseessayswerepart of that traJectory.
The impulsebehind the writing of them was political. It sprangfrom
lhc lcelingthat how socialgroupsaretreatedin cultural representationis
part and parcelof how they are treatedin life, that poverty,harassment,
icll'-hatc ind discrimination (in housing,jobs, educationalopportunity
i[rd soon) areshoredup and institutedby representation.The resonances
ol' thc tcrnr 'representation'suggestasmuch. How a group is represented,
prriscntodover again in cultural forms, how an imageof a memberof a
grrrLrpis takcn as representativeof that group, how that group is repre-
nutttodin thc scnseof spokenlor and on behalf of (whetherthey repre-
r10l. sltcirklirr themselvesor not), theseall haveto do with how members
ol'gloups scc thcmselvesand others like themselves,how they seetheir
plrreciri socicty.thcir right to the rights a societyclaimsto ensureits
cllizurn,lklrrrlly rc+rcsentation,representativeness,representinghaveto
do rtlsowilh how othcrssccntembersof a group and their placeand
t'lgltll, olltots wlto hitvc thc power to affect that place and those
llghll, llow wc ttltj sccnclctcrminesin part how we aretreated;how we
ltull ()lltct$is lrttscdon ltttw wc scc them; such seeingcomesfrom
t'gt'Fr(t||llrli(|r1,
il'ho
ts;tt'elcttltrliottol wolllcllttndothot opprcsscdgloupswas,and by
Itt(l l tlu rillllin,rt rolcrrllcssptlttldottl'insttllsAngcr.clcspaitor contempt
I lltpieltolN'ltttttguol' wrilillg hlll cttttttlsolrlocklcitl invcstigation'
Mttghlnrrrgt'tttlulyriilttuutttttottly lo tlctltrrltllnllelhlll cvclylhillSis thc
tttnrs nrl lt'riirll rrWl!1,'l'lttt't ll t{ttltclltltrgtlirrtllyttbttttlrttr,:ltlc(lllcliv0
Wtll: il lFlhlrra lilllelrrrlthrrrrkrr,rnttlrr,rlill[, [olllh,ully,ll ir itttprtt'lttttl
5.3
5.4
I tltl lrt hrrclltg lll'Frll 'ltllll$elul'wltL lrttl ll ttr't'rlrlrt ll'tt'ttrlllti'rlhy
2. 2 ThoMflltorof lmltgos lntroductlon3
co'si(lcr.illio'slllittgct
')ol.c
ncitrlyitl lllc e()'ll)lrxilvl't(l flltNivf'c$s,rnu
rcitlPolitiiritldillicully,ol't.cpt.cscntittio s.
'l'hisntcans,lirst ol'illl, stressingthat rcprcscntitlionsiuc l]|.esolitlions,
alwuysand ncccssarilyentailingthi useof tLecodesandcorvcntronsoI the
availablecultural formsofpresentation.Suchlormsrestrictandshnpewhat
can besaidby and/or aboutany aspectof realityin a givenplacein a given
societyat a giventimq but if that seemslike a limitatio*non ,uyirrg,,t n ulro
what makessayingpossibleat all. Cultural forms set the wider terms ol.
limitation and possibilityfor the (re)presentationof particularitiesand we
haveto understandhow the latter are caught in thi former in order to
understandwhy such-and-suchgets(re)presentedin the wayit does.With_
out understandingthewayimagesfunction in termsof, say,narrativggenre
orspectacle,wedon't reallyunderstandwhy theyturn oui thewaytheydo.
Secondly,cultural forms do nol have singli determinatemeanings_
peoplemake senseof them in different ways,accordingto the cultural
(including sub-cultural)codesavailableto them. For insiance,peopledo
not necessarilyreadnegativeimagesof themselvesasnegative.One of the
firsf_publicationsto point this out wasAnn Kaplan'scoliectionon women
in fiIn noir_(1978).whichsuggestedthat it waspossibleto beinspiredrather
tnan ofiendedby lmagesthat had beenassumedto be,and probablywere
culturallyencodedas,negative,that therewassomethingexhiiaratingabout
thewayfemmesfatalesin film noir givementherun_aro"undandexudesuch
incandescentpower.Much work sincethenhasstressedthemultiplewaysin
whichaudiencesmakesenseof images.In stressingcomplexitya'ndcontra-
dictorinessat the point of reception,however,iam not sulgestrngttrat
p_eoplecan makerepresentationsmeananythingthey want th!"mto mean.
Weareall restrictedby both theviewingandthJreadingcodesto whichwe
haveaccess(by virtue of wherewe aresituatedin the world and the social
order) and by what representationstherearefor us to view and read.The
prestigeofhigh culture,the centralizationof masscultural productlon,the
literal poverty of marginal cultural production: theseare aspectsof the
powerrelationsof representationthat put theweightofcontrj overrepre_
scntation on the side of the rich, the white, the male, the heterosexual.
Acknowledgingthe complexityof viewing/readingpracticesin relatronto
ropresentationdoesnot entail the claim that thereis equalityand freedom
in thc regimeof representation.
Thirclly,what is re-presentedin representationis not directlyrealityitself
but other representations.The analysisof imagesalwaysneeis to seehow
nlly giveninstanceis embeddedin a network of other instances.Agarn,as
with.thcpoint aboutreceptionabovgI needto drawbackfrom someofthe
oonclusionsthat might appearto follow from sayingthis,evenwhileinsist_
ing th t it is so. By emphasizingthe textuality of representationI am not
rlguingthattcxtsareall xhereisin theworld,ihat thereisnothingofwhich
foproscntattons:lrcrcprescntations.This is dilicult territory.I acceptthat
ottcrrltprr:ltctttlsrcrrlilyottlyllrlouglrlcl.rtcscttlir(iortsol'r'cality,thlough
lcxls,discoulsc,irnagcs;thclc is no suchthing as unnrcdiatcdaccessto
lcrrlily.llul bccaLrsoorrccausccrcalityonlythroughrepresentation,it does
nol Iollowthatoncdocsnotscercalityat all.Partial selective,incomplete,
lirrrrirpoin(ol vicw visionof somethingisnot no visionof it whatsoever.
'l'lrcconrplcx,shilling businessol re-presenting,reworking,recombining
r'(.!l)rcsontatiors is in tensionwith the reality to which representationsrefer
irtrd which thcy allect. This is evident in three ways.Firstly, reality sets
lirnits to what, barring idiosyncraticexamples,humanscan makeit mean.
( li) nlistilkca cow for a hat isnotjust an error in logic.)Secondly,realityis
rrlwrrysrllorc cxtensiveand complicatedthan any systemof representation
crrr ;.rossiblycon.rprehendand we alwayssensethat this is so representa-
liorr rrevcr'gets'reality,whichis why humanhistory hasproducedsomany
tlillcrcnt andchangingwaysoftrying to getit. Thirdly,representationshere
rrrrdrrowhaverealconsequencesfor realpeople,notjust in thewaytheyare
llcirlcd elsindicatedabovebut in terms of the way representationsdelimit
rrnrlcnablewhatpeoplecanbein anygivensociety.
'l'his lastpoi11tis most sharplysuggestedby the caseof lesbiansand gay
nrcn,Many would agreethat the categoriesof'lesbians' and 'gaymen' are
tto( givcn by reality. Most societiesrecognizesexual relations between
ntcnrbclsol'the samesex,whetheror not theyproscribe,institutionalizeor
olcvirtcthem, but only a minority havean idea of personswho habitually,
cxclLrsivelyand'by nature'havesuchrelations.Thisis an importantpoint,
ht:cluscit indicatesthemalleabilityof humansexactivity,thepossibilityof
ohirrgc.llut welive in this societyat this time,wheresomepeopledo feel
lhrt( lhoy 'are' lesbianor gay,and often enoughto wish to makecommon
cnuscwilh otherswho feelthe same.It is true that suchidentitiesarcnevcr
lcllly 0scomprehensiveastheyclaim that rnanylesbiansandgaymen,for
inst ncc,do not recognizethemselvesin theidentitiesclaimedeitherwithin
losbian/gayoulturesor by thelesbian/gaymovements but it isalsothecase
lllnt onc czmnotlive outsidethe society,the network of representations,in
which onc finds oneself.Negativedesignationsof a group havenegative
sors0cluclrccsfor the lives of membersof that grouping, and identifying
wilh thatgrouping,howevermuchit doesn't'get'allof whatoneisperson-
rlly o[ oll ol'what everyonein that groupingis,nonethe lessenablesoneto
lry to clralrg0thecircumstancesof that sociallyconstructedgrouping.
'l'hcr.rasco1'lcsbiansandgaymenpresentsin sharpform whatisnonethe
lessirnothcrgeneralcharacteristicol representation,namelythat it consti-
tutcs tlrc vcry socialgroupingthat it alsore-presents.(This is why I prefer
'llrouping'to'gror.rp',sincethelatterseemsmorefixedand given,thefor-
m0t sIrlsscsthc busincssof construction.)Ethnic representationfor
instrrrrecis luscd not on incvitablecatcgoriespre-existinghuman con-
ncioLrsrrr:sslrrrton llrcolganizationol'perccption.To taketwoexamples:to
!'olbrlo soulconcrrs'ncro'(hlack)in northcrnItalyisliablc[o betakenas
3. 4 ThoMallorol lmogog
lntroductlon5
lllc lting lhitt tlrc ;rcl.sonis ltunr soulhcrn ltrrlyl ir liglrt_skiIlt(f(1,l)lltck_
idcnriliccllii,rd o| nrincrbuntltrrar.hcwastr.catctraswiritcwrr,r rrcvisitoti
Al)'ica.tlthnicityis in thc eyeof thecult[r.e.Eventhc catcgodcalscxdis_
t|trctionmale:I'emale(and not just the genderdistinctionm-ascuhne:f-emi_
nrnc)may not be the bottom line of how we must representhumans,as
JudithButler (1990)amongothersargues.In sayingthis,howevelI giveno
groundto thosewho saythat thereis no realityexceptrepresentationitself.
Therearevariationsin skin colouq therearegenit;l diFerences,thereare
differentsexualpractices reprcsentationis theorganizationofthe percep_
tion of theseinto comprehensibility,a comprehinsibility that is
-always
fiail, coded,in otherwords,human.
The complexityof representationlies then in its embeddednessin cul-
tural forms, its unequal but not monolithic relationsof production and
reception,its tenseand unfinished,unfinishablerelation to the reallty to
whichit refersandwhichit affects.It alsolies,finally,in its comprehensive-
ness.Women,ethnicminorities,gaypeopleandsoon arenot the only ones
to,besocialgroupings;everyonebelongi to socialgroupings;indeedwe all
belongin manygroupings,often antagonisticto oni anoth'erorat ttreleast
implying very differentaccessesto power.The groupingsthat havetended
not to get addressedin ,images
of work, however,aie thosewith most
accessto power:men,whites,heterosexuals,the able_bodied.The problem
with not addressingthem as suchis that they then function as simply the
human_norm,without specificityand thuswithout a specifiableielation to
power.Latterly the studyof the representationof menind masculinityhas
becomea growth industry, but there is still next to no work on whites,
heterosexualsor the able-bodied.Suchwork, adumbratedin a coupleof
pleceshere,seeksto make normality strangg that is, visibleand spiciflc.
This must not imply, howevel an equivalencebetweensuch imagesand
thoseof women and other oppressedgroupings.The project of taking
normality strangeand thus ultimately decentringit muit not seemto say
that this hasalreadytakenplace,that now
-u."-ulioity,
whiteness,hetero_
sexualityand able-bodiednessare just imagesof identity alongsideall
othem.That rnaybethepoint wewishto reachbut we arenot thereyet.As
in all othersissuesof representation,wemustnot leavethematterofpower
oul ol'accountanymorethan thematterof representationitself
'1'hccssaysthat follow havenot beenalteredfrom their originalpublication
cxccptlbr minor errors.This secondeditionaltersfrom thJfirst only in that
lhr:chaptclon thesadyoungmanhasbeenremoved(andcannowbefound
nltrry.I'ltc ('ulturaol Quaers(Routledge2001))and that threenewchapters
l]l'",i ll""i
atklctl (Scrial.Kitling. Lillian Gish,TheBirth of a Nation);sug_
gcslio|lsli)r lirlthcr rcadinghavebeenupdated.With a collectionlike thls
rf,.r1inn,]."itt1oto cknowledgcall thosewho contributedto the writing
ol llrcrn,but I shoLrkllikctr)thankthoscwho comntissioncd,cdilcdrrni
cncotrtirgcdlhcnl:Slrirhllcnlon,.linr(bok, l>hilipl)otlcl.CluisCranlund,
l,irlly (iloss.'lirny I lruloltl,.lim tlillicr, Martin l-lumphries,RichardKing
irntlf lclcn'l'aylor'.ClhLrckKlcinharrsandJumpCal, KobenaMercer,Andy
Mctcrrllb.SallyTownsenci,ard ArmondWhite.
Itl,)trDRItNCES
lfLrllcr',.fuditlr(I990)Gender TroubIe,London/NewYork:Routledge.
Krrplirn,E.Ann(ed.)(1978)WoueninFilmNoir,London:BritishFilmInstitute.
ir
4. Chapter2
lna word
Many peopleput a great deal ol energyinto cleansinglanguage.A col-
leagueof mine is tirelessin her useof 'chairperson'in the faceof almost
everyoneelse'simplacableuseof 'chairman'. JesseJacksonhas headeda
campaign to make everyoneuse 'African-American', a campaign that
seemsto be working, at least as far as the liberal pressin the Statesis
concerned.It is oneofthe moreastonishingachievementsof 1970spolitics
that queersnow find themselvescalledby a term they themselvesnomin-
ated,gay.
Strugglingoverwords is one of the most immediate,practical,day-to-
day forms of what may be broadly characterized as left cultural politics.
They areat oneendof a continuumthat includesattentionto presentation
acrosstheboard,thenowwidelygrantedcentralityofidentity asa basisfor
activity,ideologicallyinflectedreviewingofthe artsandthe increasedstress
on the role of consciousnessand culturein our generalunderstandingof
why and how things are as they are and how to changethem. The term
'cultural politics' to coverall that is itself inadequate.In someways,the
venerablesocialistreferenceto'the strugglefor heartsand minds'is better,
becausemoreconcreteandinclusive,but it hadits own drawback.It tended
to imply that thereis 'realpolitics'and a correctway,to whichsocialistshad
to persuadepeople(their heartsand their minds) to assent,whereas'cul-
tural politics' seesall aspectsofthe life of theheartandmind asthemselves
political and all politics asemotionaland ideological.'Culture'is not just
the vehiclewherebyyou win people over to somethingelsethat rs not
culture cultureis politics,politicsis culture.
Thereis no doubt in my mind abouttheimporlanceofthis development.
It is not excessivelysweepingto observethat the overwhelmingreasonfor
the failure of socialismso far, from what we now observein Eastern
Europe,is not a failure ol presentationbut the desperateinadequacyof a
politicsthat wasnot aboutwherepeoplewereat in their heartsand minds,
what they wanted,what fulfilled them. Yet for all that, thereis ir plohltrtn
aboutcLrlturalpoliticsanclit iswellillustratcclby thc problcrrts()lNlrll!8lol
ovct'wot(ls.
ln a word 7
Insistingon chairperson,African-American,gay,is a drip-drip-drip that
we haveto keepup, yet there'ssomethingunsatisfactoryabout it too. It's
not so much its slownessand the seeminginertia of languagebut the way
there nearly alwaysturns out to be somethingoff about the words and
terms we want to get established.We rnay succeedin somemeasurein
bringing aboutthe changein vocabulary,but how aboutthe rneaningsand
feelings,themindsandhearts?
The feministprojectis in somewaysdifferentfrom that ofethnic minor-
ity or lesbian/gayinterventions.Changing'man' to 'person'and so on is
about renderinglanguagegender-neutralso that we come to seemost
humanfunctionsasjust that, human,not male.For ethnicminorities,les-
biansand gaymen and other groups(theelderly/seniorcitizens/peopleof
the third age,for instance,or the disabled/physicallychallenged/differently
abled),on the otherhand,it is morea questionofgetting newtermsestab-
lishedto describewho we are.It is this word projectthat I want to focuson
here.
I hadbettercomestraightout with oneofthe thingsthat setmethinking
about this: I haveneverliked the word'gay'. It's still the word I would usc
antl wish to haveusedto describemyselfand thoselike myself,but all the
sanrcit cmbarrassesme I'm not giving ground to thosewho alwayssaid
thll thc gay movementhad 'spoilt' the word 'gay', had 'deprivedthe lan-
guugcol'a veryusefulword' by associatingit with sexualpeculiarity- thosc
pooplcan:vcrywelcometo haveback'queer','bent','pervert'andall thc
olhcl vcry usefulwordsthat werein dangerof going out of all but homo-
phobic conrmission.Nor am I going along with the likes of Richald
Ingrttnts,who opincdin a recentSundaynewspaperthatmostol the gays
Itc knr,:wwclc not gay but miserable(as well any gay man knowing hinr
nllgh( b0). lt's just that to me 'gay' is a rathertrivial word, too muclr
tuggo$tingonly lirn-l'un-lirn,not adequaleto thecomplexitiesand varicd-
nou ol boing, . . gay.No wordcouldcverdo erllthat,but'gay' f'eelslikca
rlclintitution,un insistcnccon oncaspcct.
'l'holllclnu(ivcsulc no bct[cr,ol'coursc.The 'homo'words,cluitoapart
li'om tho lorrnodlccl whct! one wantsa oolloquialtefm to tlip oll'thc
m(tuth,olrchhttvc(hcirproblcms,'llornoscxual'istoocmphaticallyscxual.
wlth no rllbulivcor sociulling;'honro-erolic'iskxr broatl,trxrwitloly(and
urollllly)rpplls(l(o trry libidinrlly0h0r'gcdconlrctlrctwccn;rcoplcol'thc
IttRl€tgr (rttchtN litlholsttnd rttns,c()rr([ctspol'ts,nrr.:nin linc pocing);
'homophllo'h lrxr rrlrnby-prrnrIty,not $cxurlcnough,rrndlrrywlryn0v0r'
oes5hto[, 1'halltutogy ol'r'ocluirninghonrophobicworth, turningthcnr
dhoottoottlnglylt 0k oll iocloty,[s In lhs(lullnntuncol"lirggo('urrtl'rlrocr"
bymrnynetivhtl,(losrnolrl(lruehwor(llol'rllorriltionrol'oddnorrrruntl
mtfglnsllty,$ndonlytounrlrFfiru(llogHynr6|lwho(lon'll'ooluxhunrorlol'
helttgqrteer,
'(Jty'hArdnlrlh€rprlrhlernl{xr,B0nl€lr€0plefltcil lo u|l|!lylr)h0lll
5. 8 TheMattorof lmag€s
won.lcllrtndmcr (and I havea sensethat in North Americathis is rncrcas-
ingly soamonglesbians/gaywomenthemselves),but feministlesbianshave
generallyresistedthis.However,'lesbian'insteadis not a straightforward
issue.I remembera meetingat the BirminghamGayCentreaboutchanging
its name(aswasagreed)to the Lesbianand Gay Centre.Most of the men
present,well trainedor genuinelycommittedto lesbiansdecidingfor them-
selveswhat they shouldbecalled,werehappyenoughto go alongwith the
change.The strongestvoicesraisedagainstit camefrom women,generally
older,generallymore identifiedwith the bar scene,for whom 'lesbian'was
the term 'they', the doctors and psychologists,had alwaysused against
womensuchasthemselves.One saidthat she'dratherbecalled'bent' than
'lesbian'.A word with sucha positivering lor onegroupofwomen sounded
verynegativeto another.
This examplesuggeststhat thereis only a limited extentto whichwecan
make words feel to everyonehow we want them to feel. Words come
trailing clouds of connotation that are very hard to shakeoll Take the
history of progressivetermsto describeUS Americansof African descent.
Eachnewterm introducedseemedto breakthrough the hatredand preju-
dice enshrined in the prevalent vocabulary,yet each term itself was
revealedto be oppressive,requiring a new term to supersedeit. 'Negro',
ficr instance,drew from an aspirantlyobjectivedescriptionof differences
betweenpeoplesand wasadopted,notablyby the Harlem Renaissance,in
a spirit of'taking pride in one'srace'.It wasthe way in which one (who-
everone was) was positiveabout African-Americansat that time, yet it
wasfoundedon biologicalnotions of racethat seemthe epitomeof reac-
tion now, especiallyin the light of whereracial pride can lead in Aryan
hands.'Coloured' at first sight seemedto avoid this, no longer conjuring
up notionsof blood ancestry yetnot only did it still focuson a biological
diflerence(skin), it also had the effectof suggestingthat therewerenor-
mal peopleand 'coloured'ones,asif all peopledo not sharethe quality of
beingsomecolour or other.'Black', by ineluctablysuggestingthe counter
term 'white', avoidedthis by insistingthat black peopleare l/zlscolour; it
stood againstthe associationsof blacknesswith evil, insistingthat black
peopletake pride in their colour. Yet it seemsthat 'black' too may have
run its course,perhapsbecause'black' is still sowidely usedin connection
with the bad,perhapsbecauseit too still focuseson skin. The sameis true
of the socially generous 'people of color' (including all non-WASP
groups), which still implies a norm of uncoloured whiteness.'African-
American'is the first genuinelycultural label,but, apart from beingsucha
nrouthlul, may run aground on old problems about the 'Africanness'
ol' Af ican-Anrcricans,an Africannessin which many Africansdo not
rccognizcthcmsclvesand whichnranyAfrican-Americansdo nol in litct
rclllc(().
'l'ltcltislot'icrol poli(icrrlwolrlchrrnllcscclnltlwltvslo In,llrirllrr!ltl, ln
ln a word I
llirll tlrishts (o do with having(o havca wottl at all. Whitc peoplc,
lrclcloscxLrals,thc ablc-botliccl,tio uot gcncrallygo aroundworryingover
wlrirt(o call thcursclvesand havcthemselvescalled.Havinga word for
orrcscllandonc'sgroup,makinga politicsout ofwhat thatwordshouldbe,
(lrirwsirttcntior'rto and also reproducesone'smarginality,confirmsone's
plirccor,rtsitlcol'power and thus outsideof the mechanismsof change.
llirvirrg a word also containsand fixesidentity. It is significantto most
nspcctsol'who I am thatI am gaybut all thesameit is onlypart ofwho I
r nriyct tholabel,andthe veryrealneedto makea songand danceaboutit,
ir lirrblckr suggestthat it is all that I am, that it explainseverythingabout
rrrc.ll lrls thc ellectof suggestingthat sexualityis fixed,that it consistsof
t'lcirl rrnchangingcategories,which is untrue both lor individualsand for
lhe historicalconstructionsofsexuality.Similarly'disabled'lumpstogether
rtll lirrns ol'dcpzrrturefrom a physicalnorm, asif theseall lorm onecom-
nor cxpcticncewhich determineswhat needsto be known by and about
tlisublcdpcople.We will alwaysfeel frustratedby havingto havewordsto
oxprussoul socialidentity,evenwhile that socialidentity meansthat wedo
lltrlocrlhavcto havewordsfor it.
'l'hc liustlation meansthat we will almost certainlyget fed up with the
wor'dslhirt wc u$eand seethe negativeassociationscreepback in. This has
lllo lo (lo. howcver,with the fact that words do not necessarilychange
t'(.llily.77x,,!t,?nowusestheword'gay',but withjust thesamehatredasit
woltl(l lllrvcuscd'queer'or 'pervert'.No amount of changingthe termsto
rlorclibc Ali icln-Americanswill changeattitudes,aslong asmaterialcon-
tllllorrs kccp Alj ican-Americansoverwhelminglyin the jobs, housingand
eon(lili()nslit litr 'niggels'.As longasthematerialrealityofa socialgroup
t'Flllrinsoncol'oppression,thewordusedto describeit will sooneror later
Itocorrrcr.:ontirnrinr(edby thehatredand self-hatredthat arean inescapable
ipoul()l opplcssiorl.
'l'ltolinritationsol'word politicsare of a piecewith thoseof the intel-
loelt|lllirHhionstt thootherendofthe continuumof culturalpolitics.Just
ttr lcll plrrctieulpoliticshastakenon theimportanceofwords,ofpresenta-
l[rn ttnrl r'hololic, so much radical intellectualwork in recentyearshas
lirettroditnultcntionon discourse,on thewayrealityis perceivedthrough
ltl(l Nltnpo(lby sor,illly oonstructedwaysof making senseof reality.This
lnt6llo{lurlwotk wasmuohnccdcd:it hasbrokenwith tendenciesto think
ol'tsltllty ri out tltotc.scparatcliom consciousnessand culture;though
ollett lhrrttghlol' n$ unti-humanistin its rejectionof moralizingabout
httntttttdonliny,il i$itl litct pnrlirundlyhumanistin its stresson thehuman
lh('lol'lheeullunrl(:r)0$(fucliorlol our livcs.It isa politicalandintellectual
tlnlte€lhrl
'{ltottl(l
illttt(l tt$it)goodstcrdag instany revivalof'scientific'
Folltleiwith lhcirwall(lr)ctttllcnlc(lirtltLtntitnconscqucnccs.Yetwordpolit-
[,r ttttrlrlin'otltr*e(litlc(]lttNcttttttltc tisk ol thinkingthatwoldsand dis-
u{I ie tI tll llti,tclr,ol'I'rrlgt'llirrglltttlwrtttlsttnddisctttttscsilr0iltlcnlPts
6. 10 Tho Mattorol lmages Chapter3
to makesenseof what are not themselveswordsand disr.:otttscs:botlies,
l'eelings,things.
What we arecalledand what we call ourselvesmatter,havematerialand
emotionalconsequences,but we can expecttoo much ofwords. Changing
them is a necessarybut not a sufficientpart of politics. We changethe
world throughwords,but not throughwordsandculture- or,cometo that,
bread alone.It hasto beboth.
Marxism Todny(Iune 1991)
Theroleofstereotypes
'l'lta wold 'slcrcotype'is today almost alwaysa term of abuse.This stems
l't'onrllrc wholly .justifiedobjectionsol various groups- in recentyears,
hlttekr,womcn and gays,in particular - to the waysin which they find
lhotlt clvc$stcrcotypedin themassmediaandin everydayspeech.Yetwhen
Wtltol l,ippnrunncoinedtheterm,hedid not intendit to havea whollyand
Iteuortttt'ilypo.jorativeconnotation.Taking a certainironic distanceon his
Ittb,ioet,l,ipltl1]an none the lesslays out very clearly both the absolute
nl($rully lbl urrdthe usefulnessof, stereotypes,aswell astheir limitations
tttttlkloologicllimplications:
A pttlloln ol' stereotypesis not neutral. It is not merely a way of
tIbrtituting ordcr for thegreatblooming,buzzingconfusionof reality.It
It not nrclclya slrortcut. It is all thesethingsand somethingmore.It is
lho gttrttrtntocof our self-respect;it is the projection upon the world
ol'oul own senseof our own value, our own position and our own
tlght*'l'hc $tcreotypesare,therefore,highly chargedwith the feelings
thnt ttt'ortttuchcdto them. They are the fortressof our tradition, and
bphlntlitr dulbnscswecancontinueto feelourselvessafein the position
.w0ocoupy.
(1956:96)
lAboetthoglnlo un(lclstandsomethingof howstereotypesworkbyfollow-
In5uplhoidottsntiscdbyLippmann- inparticularhisstressonstereotypes
Er(ll unoxlctingproocss,(ii)a 'sholt cttt',(iii)referringto 'theworld',and
(lvl erpte*lng'our'vrlucslnd bclicl'.s.Thercstof thisessayisstructured
lmund thototoplon,concludingwithsomctorrtativcremerrkson therele-
VERE€ol' whlrth[$ gonc bolirt'cto thc rcpresentationof alcoholism.
Thnru5horrt,I r ovcltolwounlhcnrorosociologicllconcernof Lippmann
(ltowrl€I€otype(l!nclionin nor,rillthought)undlhcspccilicacsthoticcorl-
E€fllr(ltowrlFrdolypotltnollottin ll(rliotls)lhnl ntttttlttlsolrcintrotlucccl
Inloltty eonrlrlelnllonol'nrctllurcprcrenluliotlH,'l'hcpruitiottltr.:ltindrtll
7. 12 The Matterof lmages
theseconsiderationsis that it is not stereotypes,as an aspectol human
thought and representation,that arewrong, but who controlsand defines
them,what intereststheyserve.
AN ORDERING PROCESS
Stereotypesasa form of 'ordering' the massof complexand inchoatedata
that we receivefrom the world areonly a particular form to do with the
representationand categorizationof personsr of the wider processby
which any human society,and individuals within it, make senseof that
society through generalities,patterningsand 'typifications'. Unless one
believesthat there is somedefinitively'true' order in the world which is
transparentlyrevealedto humanbeingsandunproblematicallyexpressedin
their culture a belief that the variety ol orders proposedby different
societies,asanalysedby anthropologyand history,makesdificult to sus-
tain this activity of ordering,includingthe useof stereotypes,has to be
acknowledgedasa necessary,indeedinescapable,part of the way societies
make senseof themselves,and henceactuallymake and reproducethem-
selves.(The lact that all such orderings are, by definition, partial and
limited doesnot meanthat theyareuntrue partial knowledgeis not false
knowledge,it is simplynot absoluteknowledge.)
Thereare,howeve!two problemsabout stereotypeswithin this perspec-
tive.Firstly, the needto order 'the greatblooming, buzzingconfusionof
reality' is liable to be accompaniedby a belief in the absolutenessand
certaintyof any particular order,a refusalto recognizeits limitations and
partiality,its relativityandchangeability,anda correspondingincapacityto
dealwith thefact and experienceof bloomingand buzzing.
Secondly,asthework of PeterBergerand ThomasLuckmann,amongst
others,on the 'socialconstructionof reality' stresses,not only is any given
society'sorderingof reality an historicalproduct but it is alsonecessarily
implicatedin the powerrelationsin that society asBergerandLuckmann
put it, 'he who has the biggerstick has the betterchanceof imposinghis
definitionsof reality' (1967:127).I shall return below to thesetwo prob-
lemsof Lippmann'slormulation - order(stereotypes)perceivedasabsolute
andrigid, order(stereotypes)asgroundedin socialpower.
A SHORT CUT
Lippmann's notion of stereotypesas a short cut points to the manner in
which stereotypesarea very simplg striking,easily-graspedform of repre-
sentationbut arenonethe lesscapableof condensinga greatdcal ol com-
plexinl'ormationanda hostof connolations.As T. E. Pcrltirlsltolr'sitt hor
kcy alticlc 'ltcthinkingSlctcolypcs'.thr:olicrrohsctvcrl'rlltpllclty'ol'
slcrc{)lylxsisrlcce;tliv0:
The roleof stereotypes 13
to refer 'correctly' to someoneas a'dumb blonde', and to understand
what is meantby that, impliesa greatdeal more than hair colour and
intelligence.It refersimmediatelyto /zersex,whichrefersto herstatusin
society,her relationshipto men, her inability to behaveor think ration-
ally, and so on. In short, it implies knowledgeof a complex social
s ucrure.
(1919:139)
'flre samepoint emergesfrom Arnold S.Linsky'sanalysis(1970 1) of the
rcpresentationof the alcoholic in popular magazinesbetween1900and
|966,wherechangingdepictionsof alcoholicsare shownto expresscom-
plcxand contradictorysocialtheoriesnot merelyof alcoholismbut of free
will anddeterminism.
RItTNRENCE
l,ippnrannrefersto stereotypesasa projectionon to the'world'. Although
Itc is not concernedprimarily to distinguishstereotypesfrom modesof
I'cpttscntationwhoseprincipalconcernis not theworld, it is important lor
tlfl lo do so, especiallyas our focus is representationsin mediafictions,
wltich nre aestheticas well as social constructs.In this perspective,
Hlr,,rcotypcsarea particular sub-categoryof a broadercategoryof flctional
clnfflctcrs, the type. Whereasstereotypesare essentiallydefined, as in
l,ippnrunn, by their socialfunction, types,at this level of generality,are
pr'lnrllily clclinedby their aestheticfunction, namely,asa modeof charac-
lalinrtion in fiction.The type is any characterconstructedthrough the use
ol'l lbw inrnrodiatelyrecognizableand definingtraits,whichdo not change
ot'tlcvclop' throughthecourseofthe narrativeandwhichpoint to general,
l'srullcnt I'caturcsof the human world (whetherthesefeaturesare con-
ueDtttrtlizcdas universaland eternal,the'archetype',or historicallyand
gttllunrllyspcoilio,'socialtypes'and 'stereotypes'a distinctiondiscussed
helow),r'l'ho oppositeof the type is the novelisticcharacte! definedby a
multlplicityol'ttaits that are only graduallyrevealedto us throughthe
t.loltt'ricol'thc nflrr tivo,a narrartivewhichis hingedon thegrowthor devel-
opnont ol'thc uhi[actct'andis thuscentredupon the latterin her or his
unlqttsIndivitlurrlily,ltthol thanpointingoutwardsto a world.
In ttttt'r*ocicly,il isthcnovclisticcharacterthatisprivilegedoverthetype,
Ittl'lhe0bvi0LrsI0l$onth t oUlsocictyplivileges atanyrate,atthelevelof
loghl fhulot'ir: lhu intlivitltrLrlovcl thc collectiveor the mass.For this
fgstoll, lhc tlut,i()tity()l'lietionNlhltt itdtlrcssthcnrselvesto generalsocial
l uel lerrdlrev$t'lh{luNllo r:ntlttp lclling lho stot'yol't particularindi-
vklttttl,herrstt'r,lttt'nlttgrlrcittlirrttel lo pur'0ly|rotsonttlttndpsychological
Oll€t,(ltlle wg ltrlrlt.|.rrrttttt*r'lvr'ttl lllc r'flllcielllllliorlttttrltlclilli(iollol'
8. 14 The Matterof lmages
socialcategories- e.g.alcoholics we haveto considerwhat is at stakein
onemode of characterizationrather than another.Wheredo we want the
emphasisof the representationto lie on the psychological(alcoholismas
a personalproblem),on thesocial(alcoholismasanaspectof society)or in
somearticulationof the two?The choiceor advocacyof a more novelistic
or a more typical representationimplicitly expressesoneor other of these
emphases.
THE EXPRESSION OF VALUES
It is Lippmann'sreferenceto oar tradition, and indeedhis useof'our' and
'we' throughoutthepassagequoted,that takesusinto the mostimportant,
and most problematic,issuein stereotyping.For we have to ask, who
exactlyare the 'we' and 'us' invokedby Lippmann?- is it necessarilyyou
andme?
The effectivenessof stereotypesresidesin ihe way they invoke a
consensus.Stereotypesproclaim,'This iswhat everyone- you,me and us,
thinks members of such-and-sucha social group are like', as if these
conceptsof these social groups were spontaneouslyarrived at by all
membersof societyindependentlyand in isolation.The stereotypeis taken
to expressa generalagreementabout a socialgroup, as if that agreernent
arosebefore,andindependentlyof, thestereotype.Yetfor themostpart it is
from slereotypesthat we get our ideasabout socialgroups.The consensus
invoked by stereotypesis more apparent than real; rather, stereotypes
expressparticular definitions of reality, with concomitant evaluations,
which in turn relateto the dispositionof power within society.Who pro-
posesthe stereotype,who has the power to enforceit, is the crux of the
matter- whoseIradition is Lippmann's'our tradition'?
HereOffin E. Klapp's distinctionbetweenstereotypesandsocialtypesis
helpful. ln his book Ileroes, VillainsandFools(1962)Klapp definessocial
typesasrepresentationsofthose who'belong'to society.Theyarethekinds
of peoplethat one expects,and is led to expect,to find in one's society,
whereasstereotypesarethosewho do not belong,who areoutsideof one's
society.In Klapp, this distinctionisprincipallygeographic i.e.socialtypes
of Americans,stereotypesof non-Americans.Wecan,however,rework his
distinctionin termsofthe typesproducedby differentsocialgroupsaccord-
ing to their senseof who belongsand who doesn't,who is 'in' and who is
not. Who doesor doesnot belongto a givensocietyasa whole is then a
function of therelativepowerof groupsin that societyto definethemselves
ascentraland the restas'other', peripheralor outcast.
In fictions,socialtypesand stereotypescan berecognizedasdistinct by
thedifferentwaysin whichtheycanbeused.AlthoLrghconslru(l(,(licorlo-
graphicallysimilarlyLothc waystcrcotypcsillc eonslrr(lo(l(ir', n ldw vgt'-
balantlvistrrll[irilsiuc usctllo sigrrrrlllrccllrfl('lr,rl. not'trtllVltcltl lt hr,
The roleof stereotypes 15
usedin a much more open and flexibleway than can stereotypes.This is
nrostclearlyseenin relationio plot. Socialtypescan figurein almost any
kind of plot and canhavea widerangeof rolesin that plot (e.g.ashero,as
villain, as helpeq as light relief, etc.), whereasstereotypesalwayscarry
within their very representationan implicit narrative.Jo Spencehasargued
in the contextof the representationof womenthat, despitethe superficial
varietyof images,theyall carry within them animplicit narrativepattern:
visualrepresentationswhich may appearto dealwith diverseideasbut
whichareall aimedat womentendto actaspart ofan implicit narrative.
'fhis hasa'beginning'and a 'middle' (birth, childhood,marriage,family
lilb) but thereis only minimal representationofits'end', of growingold
itntltlying.
(1980:2e 45)
In anarticledealingwith thestereotypingof gaysin films,I tried to show
Itow tlrc useof imagesof lesbiansin a group of Frenchfilms, no matter
whrrlkind of film or ofwhat'artistic quality', alwaysinvolvedan identical
Ffol firnction(1977:33 5).Similarly,we surelyonly haveto betold that we
flfc goingto seea film aboutanalcoholicto know that it will bea taleeither
ol' nortliddcclineor of inspiring redemption.(This suggestsa particularly
inlorosling potential use of stereotlpes,in which the characteris con-
llt'ttulg(|. lrt the level of dress,performance,etc., as a stereotypebut is
tlollbcnrlclygivena narrativefunction that is not implicit in the stereotype,
thttnthlowing into questionthe assumptionssignalledby the stereotypical
luonogluphy,)
'l'ltolocirrltypc/stcreotypedistinctionis essentiallyone of degree.It is
nllot ttll vcty hrlrd to draw a line betweenthosewho arejust within and
lhoro rlolirtitclytrcyondthe pale.This is partly becausedifferentsocialcat-
€gorio[ovcrhrp o.g.men'belong',blacksdonot,but whatofblackmen?It
h ulro bccfluscsonlcol'tlrc categoriesthat the socialtype/stereotypedis-
tlnutlnnkcopsuprrtt oannotlogicallybekeptapartin thisway.Theobvious
gtsl ploihclcurcnrcnandwomen,andit isthisthatcausesT.E. Perkinsto
Efc0t tho rllxtinctiou(lt)7t):140 l). As appliedto men and women,the
mtllsltypc/rlctcolypo(lislinctionirnplicsthaturenhaveno directexperience
€fwonlenltr(l lhnl th0r0ooul(lbca socictyconrposedentirelyofmen:both
Ef tltererls virluullyinrponsiblc.Yr.:til scomsto me that whatthedistinc-
tlcn Folntl to, ttr*rtppliodl() w()nlcnitnd nrcn.is a tendencyof patriarchal
lhFught'toHtlclnpllo nlrln(uit)lhc intpossiblo.by insistingon tlre'olher-
nilt'of wont€tltttd tllctl(t)tt'ltlhct'lhl"olltct'ncss'ol'womcn.nrcnbeingin
lftfldtuhyllteltttttttttt||ot'|lllo whlehwont(tlttrc'{)lhut')in tholirccol'thcir
nC{!9llhl'yr,,0llllh0fllh}lrIn lthloty Ill(l H(xJlrly,('l'ltt'tlintincliolrtlttcstrlso
ftftf ltl pdt'lltr I rettlreptttttllottltt ilrclttltttlttttlt'ttlt'ttl|i,i'u'llrulirclol'tnIlu
9. 16 The Matterof lmages
and female'preserves':the pub, the beauty salon,the study,the kitchen,
etc.)What the distinctionalsomaintainsis the rzbsolr.iledifferencebetween
menand women,in the faceoftheir actualrelativesimilarity.
This is themost important function of the stereotype:to maintainsharp
boundarydefinitions,to defineclearlywherethe paleendsand thuswho is
clearlywithin andwho clearlybeyondit. Stereotypesdo not only,in concert
with social types,map out the boundariesof acceptableand legitimate
behaviour,they alsoinsiston boundariesexactlyat thosepoints wherein
reality there are none.Nowhereis this more clear than with stereotypes
dealingwith socialcategoriesthat areinvisibleand/orfluid. Suchcategories
areinvisible,becauseyou cannottelljust from looking at a personthat she
or he belongsto the categoryin question.Unlessthe personchoosesto
dressor act in a clearlyand culturally definedmanner (e.g.the working-
classman'scloth cap,themalehomosexual'slimp wrist) or unlessonehasa
trainedeye(asthosedealingwith alcoholicshave?),it isimpossibleto place
the person beforeone, whereasmany socialgroups- women and men,
differentraces,youngand old arevisiblydifferent,andthis differencecan
be eradicatedonly by disguise.Socialcategoriescanbefluid, in the sense
that it is not possiblein reality to draw a line betweenthem and adjacent
categories.We make a fuss about and producestereotypesabout - the
differencebetweenwomenand men,yet biologicallythis is negligiblecom-
pared to their similarity. Again, we are led to treat heterosexualityand
homosexualityas sharply opposedcategoriesof personswhen in reality
both heterosexualand homosexualresponsesand behaviourare to some
extentexperiencedby everybodyin their life. Alcohol useis clearlyin this
category it isnotoriouslydifncult to drawthe line betweenharm-freeand
harmful drinking. But stereotypescan.
The role of stereotypesis to makevisiblethe invisible,so that thereis no
dangerof it creepingup on usunawares;and to makefast,firm and separ-
atewhat is in realityfluid and muchcloserto the norm than the domrnant
valuesystemcaresto admit.
In the widestsense,thesefunctionsof renderingvisibleand firm can be
connectedto Lippmann's insistenceon stereotypesas ordering concepts,
and to the tendencytowardsrigidity that may be implied by this.All soci-
etiesneedto haverelativelystableboundariesandcategories,but thisstabil-
ity can be achievedwithin a context that recognizesthe relativity and
uncertainty of concepts.Such a stability is, however,achievedonly in a
situationof real,asopposedto imposed,consensus.The degreeof rigidity
and shrillnessof a stereotypeindicatesthe degreeto whichit isan enforced
representationthat points to a reality whoseinvisibility and/ol lluidity
threatensthe receiveddefinitionsof societypromotcdby tlrosrrwilh lhc
biggeststicks.(E.g.il womcnitrcnot so vcty dillclclrtlirrrrrrrrt', whyttr.c
lhr:ysrrboltlinirlerl'/;il rrlcoholisnrisrrolsor,rrrilyrlintilgrrlrlrerllllm togiltl
Theroleol stereotypes17
drinking, can we be so comlortablein our acceptanceof the latter and
condemnationof the former?)
In this perspective,and speakingvery tentatively,what is striking about
the current mediarepresentationof alcoholismis its absence.It seemsno
longer to be identified as a key social personalproblem, to be marked
stereotypicallyasbeyondthe pale of 'normal' behaviour.Ratherit hardly
seemsto be thereat all. This may be relatedto the developmentof mari-
iuanauseasa focusof media/'public'concern dopeaddictsareamongthe
most shrill of today's stereotypes.In this context, all alcohol use seems
redolentof old-fashionedvalues,and especiallyof 'masculine'valuesset
againstthe 'effeminacy'of'hippie' culture. To this one would add the
cnormous financial involvement of the alcohol industry in the leisure
industries,of which themedia area key part,and in particular the reliance
of televisionand cinemaon advertisingrevenue(which,in thecurrentlegal
situ:rtion,cannotcomefrom marijuanapromotion but can,anddoes,from
tulcoholpromotion).
If welook backat thecinema,however,it isfairly clearthat thealcoholic
tficl serveto distinguish clearly alcohol usefrom abusg as if a definite line
could be drawn, in order to legitimatethe 'social' use of alcohol. This
inclutlesthe legitimationof excessiveconsumption,drunkennessand other
ttlcohol-inducedanti-socialbehaviour,sinceit is possible,by the use of
rtcruolypes,to seethis asdistinct from 'real' alcholism.The questionthat
tltt{.:lrananalysisposesis,in whoseinterestwasthisdistinctionmaintained?a
It'ttttt .firnCook and Mike Lewington(eds)Imagesof Alcoholism,London:
llt'itishl,'ilmlnstitute(1979)
NO'l'l,ls
| | conllncnysollhcreto thediscussionof stereotypesasa formof represenling
ll6t'Nonr,Ilthoughthcworditsell(especiallyin adjectivalform)isalsousedtor.efer
tttldotts.bchuviour'.scttinlls.ctc,
I ll lt irttporllurtkrslr'osstlicrolcol'conceptualizationinthedistinctionberween,on
lll0Intchur(1,lr'chcly;lcs,and,onthcotlrc4socialandstereotypes,sincewhatmay
holr(lllbulc(llo 1yDoits univcrsalandctcrrr{ltrait,hcnccmakingit archetypai.
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