Introduction to questioned documents

1. Nature and scope of Questioned
Documents

2. • A document in general can be defined as, anything,
which can record or capture any event or thing so that
the information is not lost. Usually, a document is
written, but a document can also be made with
pictures and sounds.
• The word ‘Document’ is a vast topic covering writing
with any material such as pencil, pen or ink or with
any object on any material example a paper
inscription/engraving on a metal plate, stone slab or
any other
material,typewritten,cyclostyled,printed,lithographed,
photographed matter, chart map, plan etc.

3. Section 3 of Indian Evidence Act
• According to Section 3 of Indian Evidence Act (I) of
1872, a document may be defined as :
• “Document means any matter expressed or described
upon any substance by means of letters, figures or
marks or by more than one of those means, indented
to be used or which may be used for purpose or
recording that matter.”

4. Section 29 of Indian Penal Code
• Section 29 of Indian Penal Code defines documents
as follows:
• “Document means any matter expressed or described
upon any substance by means of letters, figures or
marks or by more than one of those means, indented
to be used or which may be used, as evidence of that
matter.”

5. Questioned Document
A questioned document is defined as the document
whose authenticity is challenged on a number of
grounds; or a document or a part of document become a
questioned document when its source of origin is
doubtful or under question. Such documents are also
known as ‘disputed’ or ‘contested’ documents.

6. The documents which are alleged to have been altered
by removing some matter or by erasing or by the
addition of words, strokes or lines in the blank spaces or
by replacing or altering by deletion or addition of
strokes or letters. These are also some times defied on
the foundation of consecutive order of entries, identity
of pen and ink, alteration in amount, obliteration,
sequence of writing or typewriting on a paper that has
been folded to check whether it was folded after or
before the writing.

7. Photocopies and carbon copies (traced) are also
challenged documents.
• Sometimes, the photocopies and carbon copies of
document are challenged by claiming that the
produced documents are not the real ones. Some
changes have been done in photocopy by adding or
deleting some of the portion(s) of writing during the
process. Nonetheless, these types of cases are very
rare.

8. Anonymous letters
• Anonymous letters are also the type of questioned
document in which letters are written to the
victim, for blackmailing and/or threatening due to
writer’s disturbed sex condition, love failure,
family rivalry, religious, political prejudice or any
other reason. In this case the document examiner
is asked to determine the authorship of such
anonymous letters by comparing the writing there
in with writing of suspect.

9. If the document is challenged on the basis of Age of
document
• This class of documents includes those documents, in
which the age of document or a part of document or
the sequential order of various parts of documents are
questioned. In such cases the chief task of document
examiner is to determine the age of document and to
ascertain whether the document is actually older or
not as it purports to be. The cases of back dating of
documents are not uncommon. The varying
sequences of strokes and on the basis of revenue
stamps, documents are termed as forged or invalid.

10. Types of Documents in Forensic
Examination
• Any writing surface containing invisible, partially
visible or visible matter or writing strokes and convey
certain meaning can be defined as document.
• Forensic documents can be classified into two
categories i.e.
(i) Disputed documents or questioned documents
or suspected documents -The disputed documents are
the documents which are under scrutiny and are of
unknown origin.

11. (ii) Standard documents - The standard documents are
the documents of known origin. Standard documents
can again be sub-divided into two categories.
(a) Specimens or sample writings/signatures and are
obtained by the I.O. from the suspect or accused in
presence of witnesses or before the court
(b) Admittedly genuine writings/signatures are normal
writings written by the accused in routine course of
business.

12. Questioned Documents are further included in the
following classes:
• Document with questioned signatures.
• Document containing alleged fraudulent alterations.
• Questioned Holograph documents
• Disputed or Questioned age of dates in documents.
• Question of materials from which documents are
produced.
• Questioned Documents including typewriting’s
(ascertaining source, date, alteration or substitution of
pages)

13. • Documents with questioned handwritings includes:
1. Anonymous and suicidal notes/disputed letters.
2. Superscriptions, registrations and other miscellaneous
writings.
• Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently
attacked.

14. 1. Document with questioned signatures.
• These are most common disputed documents may be
commercial or legal papers such as cheques , note ,
receipt , draft order , contract , agreement ,
assignment , will , deed etc.
• Signatures are generally obtained by tracing or
simulating or copying process.
• Beside writing characteristics, ink examination is
also very important.

15. 2. Document containing alleged fraudulent
alterations.
• Alterations are made by
• Erasures:- Chemical or mechanical
• Additions
• Interlineations or substitution
• Sequence of strokes is also important to be examined
in such cases.

16. 3. Questioned Holograph documents
• These may include rare stamps, valuable manuscripts,
certificates, letter of introduction and recommendation,
letters of credit, letters of famous people etc.
• Scrutiny includes examination of Paper & Watermarks
• Ink, Writing, Seal impressions & Folds etc.
4. Disputed or Questioned age of dates in documents.
• These types of documents include which are purported to be
ancient documents of great importance.
• Use of instrument for writing and origin of paper are most
important for examination.

17. 5. Question of materials from which documents are
produced.
• A document dated many years before the paper was
made comes under this category. (or when relative age
of the document is required to be decided)
6. Questioned Documents including typewriting
(ascertaining source , date , alteration or substitution of
pages)
7. Documents with questioned handwritings include:
• Anonymous letters and disputed suicidal notes.
• Superscriptions , registrations and other miscellaneous
writings.

18. Preliminary examination of Questioned
Document
• An examination of a disputed document is a scientific
problem and it is no longer confined(limited) to
comparison of signature or writing but it also includes
examination of ink, typed matter, printed matter,
watermark and all other elements that combine
together to form a document.
• The examination of a document is not complete until
its every element has been studied and examined
thoroughly.

19. Points which are generally considered in the preliminary
examination:
1) Is the paper of unusual size and was it cut or
trimmed by hand at any margin?
2) How many times, the paper has been folded and
what is the sequence of folds?
3) Does the paper bear any marks of artificial ageing
and has the paper been torn, wetted, mutilated in any
way and if so, then what are the probable reasons?
4) Does the paper bear indentation marks on the front
side or embossed strokes on the reverse side?

20. 5)Does the paper show any physical or chemical
erasing, obliteration, substitution or alteration of any
kind?
6) Was the document written or typed before or after the
paper was folded?
7) Was more than one kind of ink or pens used to write
the body writing of the document?
8) Does the document show any unnatural spacing
between the written or typed lines?
9) Is the body writing of document written in continuity
by one and the same writer?
10) Any unusual feature, etc.

21. Care and handling of questioned
document
• The moment that the genuineness of a document is
questioned, it should be handled and cared in such a
manner, that is not to impair in the slightest degree its
value as an evidence.
• Through carelessness or ignorance the evidential
value of a document of great importance is seriously
impaired and important interests are thus imperilled.
• As early as possible, the exact physical condition of
every part of the document should be observed in
detail, photographed and documented.

22. • Document should not be torn, cut, mutilated in
any manner in the slightest degree.
• It should not be touched with an eraser, pen,
pencil or any other sharp instrument.
• It should not be folded in new place and it should
not be folded and unfolded unnecessarily.
• It should not be wet or dampened by any chemical
without proper direction and guidelines.

23. • Avoid the possibility of pencil marks being made on
such a document while handwriting examination.
• Sharp pointed dividers or measuring instruments
should not be put upon a questioned writing except
with the greatest care and only by those skilled in the
use of such instruments and a tracing should not be
made of it except under proper supervision and with a
very soft pencil with very light pressure.
• A folded document of any kind should be unfolded
and should be kept flat in a suitable envelope. It is
done in order to avoid the necessity of folding and
unfolding of the document every it is examined.

24. • Document such as letter, checks, legal paper should
be unfolded and placed in suitable envelopes.
• When document is fragile and is handled by court or
jury place between two clear glass piece. ( one end
taped and other end rubber banded )
• If document is numerous in number use transparent
celluloid with card backing

25. • While analysis ( ink, paper etc.) avoid excess
sunlight, heat and moisture.
• When document is torn paste with small strips of
transparent tape and place between glass.

26. (ultraviolet, visible, infrared and fluorescence spectroscopy, photomicrography,
microphotography, visible spectral comparator, electrostatic detection apparatus)
BASIC TOOLS NEEDED FOR
FORENSIC DOCUMENT
EXAMINATION

27. Basic Measuring Tools
• Basic measuring tools comprises metric rulers,
calipers for fine measurements and an assortment of
glass alignment plates which allow comparison and
measurement of angles, height, width and spacing of
handwriting and typewriting.
• A tool for both measurement and magnification is a
graticule/ reticle which is a magnifier eyepiece
containing an imprinted measurement scale which
allows the examiner to precisely measure what is
viewed under the microscope.

28. • In alleged traced forgeries it often becomes necessary
to investigate the question of identity in size,
proportions and position of the various parts of an
alleged model signature and of one or more traced
imitations.
• Particularly as component of the initial investigation
in such a case, or for final use for illustrating
testimony, it is very important to make definite
measurements of the various parts to be compared in
order to show certain exact identities which may in
combination be very strong evidence of forgery.

29. • For all such surface measurements finely graduated
glass rules are best; with them more accurate
measurements are made because the graduations are
brought into real contact with the parts to be
measured as cannot be done with the ordinary opaque
rule.
• For somewhat longer measurements which are
occasionally necessary there is a steel ruler which is
graduated in fourths of an inch except that at one end
a fourth inch space is graduated in hundredths of an
inch.

30. • This design makes it possible to measure from any
graduation up to six inches into the finely graduated
space, as with the glass rule. By the use of needle
pointed parallel dividers very precise measurements
are made with this scale and for some purposes it is
very helpful.

31. Magnification- Magnifiers / Microscopes
• Document examiners use an extensive variety of
magnification equipment.
1. Handheld magnifiers enlarge the objects from 2 to 10
times (magnification powers of 2X to 10X) and also
have lighting abilities as well to make brighter the field
of view.
2. To see facts more closely, there are several types of
microscopes.

32. 3. A binocular, or stereo, microscope is easy to use
because, like the name implies, there are 2 eyepieces
and the viewer focuses with both eyes. In addition, a
microscope has a third viewing tube that allows a still or
video camera to be attached for "through the
microscope" photography or videography. Digital
microscopes combine optics for enlargement with
digital capture technology to permit the user to view the
magnified image on the monitor in its place or in
addition to viewing it through the microscope
eyepieces.

33. Light Sources
• Light sources include transmitted light, infra-red light
also long and short wave ultraviolet light. Transmitted
light is simply light from the back of a document.
This is most excellent provided by a light box which
has a color corrected fluorescent type light bulb. The
document can be laid upon the box and the light from
the rear of the document makes it possible to see
details not otherwise visible.

34. Ultra-Violet light
• The questioned documents can consist of
identification of fake or genuine cards, contracts,
statements, titles and deeds, certificates, stamps, bank
checks, handwritten letters, machine-generated
documents (such as photocopiers, fax machines and
printers), currency and electronic documents.
• Out of all light sources, UV and IR are the significant
sources of radiation that are widely used in the
majority of the Questioned Document examination.

35. • Ultraviolet (UV) is a 10 nm to 400 nm wavelength
electromagnetic radiation that is shorter than visible
light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is found in
sunlight and contributes about 10% of the Sun's
overall electromagnetic radiation production. It is also
generated by specialized arcs and lights such as
mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black
lights.

37. • Ultraviolet (UV) illumination techniques are used for
multiple purposes in forensic investigations,
including authenticating paintings, authenticating
signatures, examining the documents in question, ink
examination, highlighting latent fingerprints in crime
scenes and tracing traces on clothes, detecting ink
stains and identifying residual body fluid stains.

38. In QD examination, there're several types of
applications of UV rays. Some are listed below:
1. Paper Examination: UV rays can be used to
distinguish between various types of paper and paper
textures. When subjected to UV, differently
manufactured papers give distinguished fluorescence
under UV rays. This is mainly because of the sizing
(glazing) of the paper, for example, in some cases, it can
appear greenish, and in others, it can be reddish. This is
used to differentiate two different types of papers, even
having the same experience.

39. 2. Counterfeiting/ Counterfeited Currency or
Others: Fake currency notes, security papers, passports,
certificates, etc. will give different fluorescent due to the
difference in sizing and the fibers present in the
documents. Also, specific watermarks (Chemical and
Mechanical) can be easily differentiated based on their
luminescence under UV rays. Many of these
government documents are embedded with multicolor
security fibers that glow up in UV rays as red, green,
and blue color. However, in fake documents, this will
not be the case.

40. 3. Examination of Alterations in Documents: Usually the
spots visible under UV light, may have been treated with
any type of ink eradicator. Also, the eruption of the fibers
during mechanically erasing of the matter can be evidently
visible under UV radiations.
4. Examination of Secret Writings: The secret writing can
be made using biological fluids like urine, milk, saliva,
semen, vegetable and plant juices, lemon juice, onion juice,
quinine hydrochloride, and so on. Since all of these
substances produce specific fluorescent under UV light,
hence can be deciphered (visualized) and make the matter
visible.

41. 5.Resealed Envelops : An envelope that has been
opened and released with any type of glue may
fluoresce differently under UV light.
6. Paintings Examination: Fraudulently created
paintings to showcase them as the genuine work of old
times, can be detected by fluorescence test. Usually,
varnishes used on an old painting will fluoresce
differently from modern varnishes. Other alterations to
an original painting can also be detected under UV
radiations.There can be several other cases of tampered
documents, ink analysis, stamp analysis that can
be easily performed using UV radiations.

42. A picture showing the presence of water marks on a bank
cheque.

43. Chemical Water-marks as seen under UV light

44. A picture of a credit card showing fluorescent under UV light.

46. Visible light
• The visible light spectrum is the segment of the
electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can
view. More simply, this range of wavelengths is
called visible light. Typically, the human eye can
detect wavelengths from 380 to 700 nanometers.
• All electromagnetic radiation is light, but we can only
see a small portion of this radiation—the portion we
call visible light.

47. • As the full spectrum of visible light travels through a
prism, the wavelengths separate into the colors of the
rainbow because each color is a different wavelength.
• Violet has the shortest wavelength, at around 380
nanometers, and red has the longest wavelength, at
around 700 nanometers.
• VIS light has wavelengths between 400 nm and
700nm. Via the high resolution, VIS light is used to
observe the changes on the document by taking
macro and micro shots on the sample.
• The visible part of the spectrum is important as it
helps distinguish between different colored inks,
papers and security features.

48. Infrared and fluorescence spectroscopy
• Infrared radiation (IR), is electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) with longer wavelengths than visible light. It
is therefore generally invisible to the human eye,
although it can be felt as heat by humans. IR
wavelengths extend at 700 nanometers from the
nominal red edge of the visible spectrum to 1
millimeter (300 GHz). Most of the thermal
radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is
infrared.

49. • One of the most characteristic feature of IR rays is
that, they are readily absorbed and converted in to the
heat energy.
• The basic source of IR radiation in forensic work is
1000 watt tungsten filament lamp.
• Various filters are needed to screen out all other light
waves and to allow only IR rays to pass through.

50. Applications of Infrared in Questioned Document
Examination:
1. Analysis of Inks: In any disputed or altered
document, in which the use of two different types of
inks is suspected, can easily be deciphered through
infrared radiation.
• An example is given below in the image. This is due
to the differences among the reflectivity of the ink
used. One ink will be more reflective than the other
under certain wavelengths of IR. Hence, one will be
more darker and other will appear lighter.

52. 2. Analysis of Obliterated Writings: Writings can
be obliterated in number of ways. For instance, by
using correction fluid and then over-writing, or by
damaging the previous text and then over-writing or
in any other such manner.
• One ink will be opaque and other will be
transparent at certain wavelength. Therefore, by
changing the wavelengths of IR radiation, it is
possible to read the obliterated matter easily.

54. 3. Examination of Erasures: Small particles of the ink
or pencil often linger in the outline when writing is
erased mechanically. With an infrared radiation or
infrared imaging, it may be possible to make the writing
clear.
4. Charred Document Examination: The burnt
document examination, sometimes is only possible
through infrared photography, however, it depends upon
the type of the ink used and the degree of burning.

55. 5. Cancellation Marks: After their first cancellation,
postal stamps are often reused. The cancelation mark
residues may not be visible duets the stamp's dark
background. An infrared photograph may reveal the
remains of previous marks of cancellation.
6. Water Damaged Documents: By photographing the
water damaged documents with the aid of light
transmitted by the blue-green infrared blocking filter,
the residual ink in the paper fluoresced in the infrared
and this can be recorded further to decipher the written
matter.

56. Photomicrography
• Photomicrography is the practice of photographing
microscopic objects or creatures, usually for scientific
purposes.
• Photomicrography is widely used in forensic labs
and medical research, as well as other fields that
require study of microscopic details. In the 19th and
20th centuries, photomicrographs, also called
micrographs, were produced by connecting or
aligning a film camera with a microscope, a
complicated process.

58. • Photomicrography was pioneered in the 1800s, only a
few decades after the introduction of photography
itself. Scientists quickly realized that
photomicrography would facilitate the study of cell
structure, disease bacteria, and other microscopic
matter.
• When forensic science came into use in crime
investigation in the early 20th century,
photomicrography became an important tool for
examining trace evidence, tiny details that can
connect a suspect to a crime scene.

59. • Camera zoom lenses and microscopes work on the
same basic principle: using magnifying lenses, and
sometimes mirrors, to enlarge a point while retaining
clear focus.
• Early photomicrography involved complex
arrangements of cameras and microscopes.
• In some cases, the camera’s lens was actually
removed, making the microscope effectively serve as
its lens.

60. • Digital technology has eliminated the need for such
painstaking device alignments; the microscopic image
is processed as digital data.
• This data can be saved on a computer, stored as a still
image or video, and enlarged on a screen, all while
the object is still under the microscope.
• Photomicrography may be best known in modern
times for its use in processing trace evidence from
crime scenes.

61. Microphotography
• Microphotography involves taking photographs on very
small film to produce small images that can only be viewed
when magnified.
• Whereas photomicrography simply involves taking pictures
(photographs) using a microscope, Microphotography is the
process through which the size of a photograph is reduced so
that it can only be viewed using a microscope.
• Because of the technique allows for a significant reduction in
size of photographs, it has proved to be particularly beneficial
for many libraries that are today using it for documentation.

62. • In microphotography, the photographer uses a special negative
known as a microfilm to preserve the images. Here, the subject
to be photographed (documents etc) may be photographed in
one of two ways; a linear array or a two dimensional array.
• The ordinary microfilm roll is a good example of linear array
micrograph. The standard film measure 16mm, 35, 70mm or
105mm in width and may be perforated on one or either
edges.
• Typically, the photographer photographs consecutive pages of
the document by capturing a single or a pair of pages.

63. • Given that microfilm rolls tend to be of greater lengths,
microfilm strips which are composed of six frames can also be
used.
• For reading purposes, microfilm strips have been shown to be
more suitable compared to microfilm rolls.
• This is largely due to the fact that it's easier to find a specific
page in a strip that contains six frames.

64. • Two dimensional array micrographs tend to carry more pages
compared to the microfilm and the microfilm strip.
• This makes the two dimensional array more convenient for
library applications given that their size allows for many more
documents to be photographed and saved.

70. Electrostatic detection device
• An electrostatic detection device, or EDD, is a specialized
piece of equipment commonly used in questioned document
examination to reveal indentations or impressions in paper that
may otherwise go unnoticed.
• It is a non-destructive technique (will not damage the
evidence in question), allowing further tests to be carried out.
• It is a sensitive technique capable of detecting indentations on
pages several layers below the top sheet and many years after
the indentations were created.
• Rather Seward in 1998 & 1999 proposed a theory of
explaining the detection capability of an electrostatic detention
device.

72. How it works
• A sheet of paper is placed over the paper that has the
suspected intended writing, and both are placed in a
vaccum chamber.
• A change of electricity is imported to the plastic and then
toner powder is applied to the surface of the plastic .
• An image of intended writing will be created on the
plastic, with the added advantage the original paper is not
damaged.

73. • The original theory suggested that the paper sandwiched
between the grounded platen and the mylar charging film acted
as a type of capacitor with the change in capacitance being due
to differing compression of the paper.
• This led to models like the 'Thickness Variation Theory' and
the 'Surface Variation Theory'.
• The original theory suggested that the paper sandwiched
between the grounded platen and the mylar charging film acted
as a type of capacitor with the change in capacitance being due
to differing compression of the paper.

74. • However, it turns out that a detectable 'indentation' is not due
to the physical pressure applied to the writing instrument as
one might expect.
 Application of ESDA:
1. Cheque forgery – Signature on cheque and withdraw the
money.
2. We can check the second cheque whether there is any
indentation marks present.
3. Traced forgery – Tracing signatures.
4. Ransom note.

75. Determining the age and relative age
of documents.
• Questions of age of the document enter into study of disputed
documents in many ways.
• The most common enquiry is whether the document is actually
old as its date would indicate.
• Forged documents are sometimes made to look old in order
to make them appear genuine.
• In order to make documents old they are sometimes soiled,
wrinkled, discolored, and unnecessarily folded and crumpled
in a manner that shows quite clearly a deliberate effort to give
the document a worn look and aged appearance.

76. • In artificially aged documents there are certain inconsistencies
which are perfectly apparent when pointed out. For e.g.: the
inside of the document is more soiled than the outside. The
actual age of the document is ascertained by the study of all
the means by which it was produced and the actual conditions
under which the document was kept.

77. • The age of a document can be roughly estimated by using the
following:
1. Content of the documents(phraseology, chronological
significance, tense.
2. Paper
3. Ink
4. Typewriting
5. Printed matter
6. Marks of writing Instrument
7. Handwriting and Signatures
8. Chance Marks
9. Postage Stamps, Rubber stamps
10. Envelopes

78. 1.Content of the documents(phraseology, chronological
significance, tense.
• It frequently happens that the names of persons, firms
or corporations, names or numbers of streets or references to
events or transactions in a questioned document have a
conclusive chronological significance and prove that it was
made after a certain definite date.
• The tense of verbs in questioned document may have
unmistakable date significance. In referring to services
rendered the deceased ,it is easy to understand the distinction
in date significance of “taking care of” and “took care of”, or
of “caring for me” and “took care of me up to my death”
which are common phrases spotted in wills. Geographical
references such as ‘Bombay’, ‘Calcutta’, ’Madras’, etc

79. 2.paper
• The age of paper can be a rough index of the age of
the document.
• Thus the age of paper sometimes becomes highly
significant, particularly in the investigation of old
documents and ancient manuscripts. It must be
clearly understood that paper cannot be dated within narrow
limits of time but as time passes its physical properties and
appearance changes.
• The materials that make up the paper contain information
about when the paper was manufactured.
• The fiber content and the various other materials such as
the substances for coating, loading or brighteners and their
quantity used.

80. • The presence of watermark also helps in determining the
period when the paper was printed. Some watermarks
contain dating codes that allow the manufacturer to
determine in which year the paper was made.
• Cheap wood pulp paper such as newspapers may start to
discolor along the edges within a year or two even when
stored in a closed file, but rag paper of high quality will not
show any changes until it’s very old. Extreme ageing
of paper can occur over a period of10,20,30 years but the
exact time cannot be determined as a number of factors
such as temperature, storage conditions play an vital role in
the ageing process.

81. 3.Ink
• During the 20th century a number of new chemicals have
been developed and incorporated into the composition of
ink. The ball point pen was first introduced in1940s.These
pens had an oil base rather than a water based inks that
had been used for fountain and dip pens.
• In 1952 inks with polyethylene glycol base began
replacing the oil based inks.
• In the later part of 19th century alkaline water- based inks
were also introduced.In 1960s the fiber tip pens were
introduced.

82. • The condition in which the document is stored has
an impact on the changes in the ink. With iron based fluid
inks.
• There is a significant oxidation that causes darkening of the
ink, rapid at first but definitely slowing in a few days or
weeks.
• The rate of change serves as an estimation of how long the
ink has been there on the paper. A very rapid change
indicates that the age of the writing to be a few days while
very slight changes over a period of months would indicate
the writing has had been on the paper anywhere from a few
weeks to few months, again depending on the storage.

83. • After approximately six months there is very slight change
which can no longer be measured.
• Other types of inks do not undergo this oxidation process.
In other types of inks the changes which are observed are
fading of the ink due to exposure to light.
• Few years ago a method was proposed based on the fact that
the chloride ions and the sulphate ions in the ink start
spreading outwards from the line of writing. Measurement
of the amount of migration is a destructive technique that
requires a significant portion of the ink stroke to be cut. Old
Ink lines have a peculiar characteristic appearance under
magnification and are often cracked and broken and heavy
lines stand up on the paper.

84. 4. Typewriting
• The design of the type may tell something about the
manufacturer, and each design has a specific date of
introduction. With proper reference material, it is possible to
establish whether the type design was available when the
document was allegedly prepared.
• As the typewriter is used its condition deteriorates especially
the type bar machine. Defects occur over a period of time
as usage exceeds. The period in which the same defect is
present in the specimen as well as the questioned document
indicates that the specimen and the questioned document were
typed around the same time.

85. • Narrowing dating periods may be achieved by studying
the gradual deterioration as a fabric ribbon is used. Thus
the depth of the impression forms the basis of
comparisons. Newer ribbons(letters) print a dark, heavily
inked impression; worn ribbons give a very dull weak
impression.
• The decline from fresh to worn is gradual and assists
with age estimation. At the same time the impressions of
the type stroke are broader at first and become rather fine
and narrow towards the end of the ribbon’s life.

86. 5.Printed matter
• Documents contained printed matter such as letterheads
provide a useful information to determine the time. With
the advancement of technology various types of
printers were introduced. Thus depending on the printer
used an estimate can be made.
6.Marks of Writing Instrument
• Quill pens used were soft pointed and did not indent and
cut the paper. The use of particular pen points to the age
of documents in some cases. For eg the use of ball pen
before 1950 in India was practically nil.

87. 7.Handwritings and signatures.
• As time passes changes occur in the handwriting and
signature of individuals yet it is difficult to set a
date before which a particular habit was found. Age
deterioration is a progressive change, but once it is a part
of the handwriting, it is inconsistent with handwriting of
one or two years before. Illness and accidents can cause
sharp changes in handwriting. A change in handwriting of
mature writers is generally very slow and it covers a
period of years.

88. 8.Chance Marks
• Chance marks such as deposition of ink or stapler pin marks
can help identify the tool and the period of the tool being in
use is checked with the date the document claims to be of.
Also marks such as folds, embossing, binding and post mark
impressions have a dating value.
9.Postage stamps, Rubber stamps
• Postage stamps have a unique design and there is a record of
the designs of the postage stamps which have been
in circulation. Rubber stamps hold addresses and names
of companies/people, The addresses and pincodes or peculiar
names tell us about the time in which they were use.
10.Envelopes:
• Sometimes the letter doesnot conatin the date on which it was
written but the envelope conatins details of when it was
mailed. Also the envelope contains the stamps and addresses.