Forgery involves imitating signatures or documents. There are three main types of forgery: simulated forgery which copies signatures freehand, traced forgery which uses tracing methods to exactly replicate signatures, and simple forgery which uses fake names without copying a model. Traced forgeries often show defects like irregular line quality from hesitation and changes in pen pressure. Simulated forgeries may also contain indications of fraud like tremors, blunt letter forms, and lack of spontaneity. Document alterations like erasures, additions, or substitutions can also be used to change meanings fraudulently. Careful examination of writing characteristics is needed to determine the authenticity of signatures and documents.
Alteration is defined as any change to a document which gives it a different effect from
that it originally possessed. If change is made after execution of a document and without
the consent of the other party or concerned person, then such change is called fraudulent
alteration. Document examiners must be able to identify documents that were altered to change the conditions of a contract or other legal entity.
Alterations can take the form of erasures and replacement and/or insertion of material into a document.
Firing marks left on bullets and cartridge cases can be used to identify the firearm used. There are several types of marks including:
1. Rifling marks on the bullet from the grooves in the barrel. These marks are unique to each gun.
2. Firing pin marks on the primer from the firing pin striking it. Imperfections in the firing pin can be transferred.
3. Breech face marks on the cartridge from the cartridge striking the breech face on firing. Imperfections are imprinted.
4. Extractor and ejector marks on the cartridge case from the mechanisms removing the spent case from the firearm.
The document discusses the crime of arson, including its definition, elements, degrees, investigation process, causes, statistics, and prevention. Some key points:
- Arson is the intentional, unlawful burning of property. It may include buildings, vehicles, land, and more.
- Elements of arson include the malicious burning of another's dwelling. Degrees depend on factors like occupancy and intent (e.g. first degree involves occupied structures).
- Arson investigations follow protocols to determine origin and cause, looking at factors like burn patterns and witness accounts. It aims to distinguish intentional from accidental fires.
- Arson is frequently committed and costly, with over $17,000 in damages on average.
REVIEWER IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION.pptxRandyPellazar
This document provides an overview of different types of documents that may be examined by a questioned document examiner, including public documents, official documents, private documents, commercial documents, and questioned or disputed documents. It discusses signatures, different types of forgeries (simple, simulated, traced), and examines physiological factors and characteristics related to handwriting identification. Key areas covered include the development of handwriting, writing movements, recognizing characteristics like slant, size, proportion, connections between letters, and variations. The document also discusses factors examined in questioned documents like alterations, erasures, and identification through handwriting analysis and comparison to known standards.
The document discusses ridge counting and tracing techniques used in fingerprint analysis. Ridge counting involves drawing an imaginary line between a fingerprint's delta and core and counting the number of ridges that cross the line. Ridge tracing follows a single ridge from the left delta to determine if the fingerprint pattern is an inner, meeting, or outer whorl based on the number of intervening ridges between the traced ridge and right delta. Specific rules are provided for accurately applying these methods.
Sample Sample Pattern Area training ModuleRmcauley
The document discusses key fingerprint terminology used for identification, including:
- Pattern area is defined by type lines, which are the two innermost ridges surrounding an area. This area contains features like deltas and cores.
- Deltas are the first ridge or obstruction at the point where type lines diverge, usually a bifurcation or dot.
- Cores are the center of looping patterns, determined by finding the innermost sufficient recurving ridge without appendages between its shoulders.
- Ridge counting is done between the delta and core to further identify patterns.
Class characteristics are common features of handwriting within a group, such as size, spacing, speed, slant, and skill. Size refers to the largeness of writing. Spacing is the amount of space between letters, words, and lines. Speed is the time it takes to write. Slant is the angle of letters relative to the baseline. Skill improves with practice. Other characteristics include pen pressure, movement, alignment, and line quality.
fingerprint classification systems Henry and NCICKUL2700
This document discusses two fingerprint classification systems - the Henry System and the NCIC System. The Henry System uses symbols written on fingerprint cards to categorize fingerprints into six divisions - primary, secondary, small letter group secondary, sub-secondary, key, and major. The NCIC System uses two-letter or number codes above the fingerprint boxes to classify prints. Both systems aim to facilitate filing and retrieving fingerprint records in manual and electronic databases.
Alteration is defined as any change to a document which gives it a different effect from
that it originally possessed. If change is made after execution of a document and without
the consent of the other party or concerned person, then such change is called fraudulent
alteration. Document examiners must be able to identify documents that were altered to change the conditions of a contract or other legal entity.
Alterations can take the form of erasures and replacement and/or insertion of material into a document.
Firing marks left on bullets and cartridge cases can be used to identify the firearm used. There are several types of marks including:
1. Rifling marks on the bullet from the grooves in the barrel. These marks are unique to each gun.
2. Firing pin marks on the primer from the firing pin striking it. Imperfections in the firing pin can be transferred.
3. Breech face marks on the cartridge from the cartridge striking the breech face on firing. Imperfections are imprinted.
4. Extractor and ejector marks on the cartridge case from the mechanisms removing the spent case from the firearm.
The document discusses the crime of arson, including its definition, elements, degrees, investigation process, causes, statistics, and prevention. Some key points:
- Arson is the intentional, unlawful burning of property. It may include buildings, vehicles, land, and more.
- Elements of arson include the malicious burning of another's dwelling. Degrees depend on factors like occupancy and intent (e.g. first degree involves occupied structures).
- Arson investigations follow protocols to determine origin and cause, looking at factors like burn patterns and witness accounts. It aims to distinguish intentional from accidental fires.
- Arson is frequently committed and costly, with over $17,000 in damages on average.
REVIEWER IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION.pptxRandyPellazar
This document provides an overview of different types of documents that may be examined by a questioned document examiner, including public documents, official documents, private documents, commercial documents, and questioned or disputed documents. It discusses signatures, different types of forgeries (simple, simulated, traced), and examines physiological factors and characteristics related to handwriting identification. Key areas covered include the development of handwriting, writing movements, recognizing characteristics like slant, size, proportion, connections between letters, and variations. The document also discusses factors examined in questioned documents like alterations, erasures, and identification through handwriting analysis and comparison to known standards.
The document discusses ridge counting and tracing techniques used in fingerprint analysis. Ridge counting involves drawing an imaginary line between a fingerprint's delta and core and counting the number of ridges that cross the line. Ridge tracing follows a single ridge from the left delta to determine if the fingerprint pattern is an inner, meeting, or outer whorl based on the number of intervening ridges between the traced ridge and right delta. Specific rules are provided for accurately applying these methods.
Sample Sample Pattern Area training ModuleRmcauley
The document discusses key fingerprint terminology used for identification, including:
- Pattern area is defined by type lines, which are the two innermost ridges surrounding an area. This area contains features like deltas and cores.
- Deltas are the first ridge or obstruction at the point where type lines diverge, usually a bifurcation or dot.
- Cores are the center of looping patterns, determined by finding the innermost sufficient recurving ridge without appendages between its shoulders.
- Ridge counting is done between the delta and core to further identify patterns.
Class characteristics are common features of handwriting within a group, such as size, spacing, speed, slant, and skill. Size refers to the largeness of writing. Spacing is the amount of space between letters, words, and lines. Speed is the time it takes to write. Slant is the angle of letters relative to the baseline. Skill improves with practice. Other characteristics include pen pressure, movement, alignment, and line quality.
fingerprint classification systems Henry and NCICKUL2700
This document discusses two fingerprint classification systems - the Henry System and the NCIC System. The Henry System uses symbols written on fingerprint cards to categorize fingerprints into six divisions - primary, secondary, small letter group secondary, sub-secondary, key, and major. The NCIC System uses two-letter or number codes above the fingerprint boxes to classify prints. Both systems aim to facilitate filing and retrieving fingerprint records in manual and electronic databases.
This document discusses forgery and its types. It defines forgery as falsely making or altering a writing that affects another person's legal rights or obligations, whether or not it includes the forger's name. The main types of forgery discussed are check fraud, counterfeiting paper money and identity documents, credit card theft, and contract alterations. Methods of forgery include simulated forgery by copying a genuine signature, traced forgery by tracing a genuine signature, and blind forgery of signatures that do not exist.
The document discusses questioned documents and provides definitions and examples of different types of questioned documents. It covers two levels of information that can be obtained from documents - superficial and deeper evidence. It also lists different types of evidence that can be analyzed from documents, including identifying the author or determining authenticity. The document provides a brief history of the field and discusses tools and techniques used in analysis, such as ultraviolet light, infrared examination, video spectral comparator, and electrostatic detection apparatus.
This document discusses various methods used to alter documents, including erasure and obliteration. It notes that erasures can be detected under microscopic examination but may not reveal the original text. Obliteration through chemicals is invisible to the naked eye but can be seen under microscopy. Infrared luminescence examination can determine if different inks were used for original text versus obliterated text, but recovery is impossible if the same ink was used.
1) Manual typewriters produce identifiable characteristics over time such as misaligned or damaged letters that can be used to match documents to a specific machine.
2) Electric typewriters use either a daisy wheel or golf ball to print letters, which deteriorate with use and produce flaws that appear across documents from the same machine.
3) Printers are more difficult to trace to a specific device than typewriters, but laser printers may transfer tiny scratches that offer identifying evidence.
This document discusses various methods for examining documents to detect alterations or forgeries. It describes how erasures, overwritten text, and chemical treatments can be detected through microscopic analysis, ultraviolet light, infrared photography, and digital image processing. Chromatography and ink libraries can be used to match ink between known and questioned documents. Paper composition can also provide clues through features like watermarks.
This document discusses fingerprint classification and provides details on fingerprint patterns including loops, whorls, arches and their variations. It explains the fingerprint classification formula which uses values assigned to fingerprint patterns on each finger to determine the primary, secondary, sub-secondary and final classifications. These classifications allow fingerprints to be systematically categorized and identified.
Individual handwriting characteristics are unique to each person and include things like stroke direction and curvature, pen pauses where the pen stops touching the page, pen lifts where the pen is removed from the page, placement of dots, crossings, and punctuation, hesitations seen in vertical or curved lines, embellishments added for style, abbreviations of common letters or words, and distinctive ways of making the cross on "t" and dot on "i". These characteristics are developed unconsciously over time and differ between genuine and forged writing.
Fingerprint identification has traditionally relied on comparing 12-16 matching ridge points between two prints. Recently there has been a shift to "ridgeology" where examiners consider additional features like ridge patterns, structures, and scars. Possible features for comparison include the overall ridge pattern, individual ridge patterns like endings and bifurcations, and individual ridge structures like width and pore position. Fingerprints can be classified by their level 1 overall pattern, then compared at levels 2 and 3 based on individual ridge characteristics. Proper identification requires analysis, comparison of visible features, and verification between prints. While 12 points was traditionally used, the probability of duplication is considered rather than a set number of points.
The document discusses standards required for handwriting comparisons. It states that collected standards, which are genuine documents written naturally, are preferred over request standards which are written at the request of investigators. It provides guidance on obtaining adequate samples, including getting 20-25 signatures or 4-5 handwritten pages and samples within 2-3 years unless health has changed. When getting request standards, the writer should be dictated to, the writing conditions duplicated, and the questioned writing kept isolated to avoid influencing the samples.
Questioned documents are any objects whose authenticity is in doubt, including handwritten or typed documents. Forensic document examination uses scientific analysis to examine questioned documents and provide evidence about their authenticity. Common types of questioned documents include wills, checks, agreements, and passports. Document examiners analyze aspects like handwriting, signatures, paper, ink, printers, and impressions to determine if a document has been altered or forged. This helps determine the legitimacy of documents in legal cases.
Forensic Science - 07 Casts and impressionsIan Anderson
This document discusses different types of impression evidence, including patent impressions, latent impressions, and plastic impressions. It also covers shoe impressions, tire tread impressions, and dental patterns. Shoe impressions can provide information about a person's size, weight, activities, and gait. Tire tread impressions can indicate the make and model of a vehicle. Dental patterns can be used to identify remains or link a bite mark to a suspect. The case of Ted Bundy is discussed as an example where dental impressions from a bite mark left on a victim were used to identify and convict Bundy.
The document provides guidance on taking legible fingerprints. It describes fingerprint patterns such as loops, whorls and arches. It explains how to take rolled fingerprints by rolling each finger from nail to nail. Plain impressions should be taken simultaneously at a 45 degree angle. The quality of fingerprints should be checked for clarity, completeness and correct positioning in rolled and plain blocks. Notations should be made for any missing fingerprints and certain abnormalities. All required fields must be completed for criminal and civil submissions to avoid rejection.
The document discusses various techniques used in handwriting and document analysis. It covers topics such as historical dating of documents, fraud investigation, analysis of paper/ink, techniques for examining forgeries and alterations, and comparing handwriting samples. The core techniques include analyzing characteristics of handwriting style, paper fibers, ink composition, indentations, and marks from copying/printing devices. The goal is to determine the authenticity and origin of questioned documents through scientific examination and comparison with known samples.
This document discusses factors that can affect handwriting, including intrinsic factors, circumstantial factors, and temporal/induced states of the writer. Intrinsic factors include imitation of others' writing styles and sinistrality. Circumstantial factors include writing conditions/materials. Temporal states that can influence writing include consumption of alcohol, hallucinogens, fatigue, and hypnosis. The effects of these factors are described, such as how alcohol consumption can cause deterioration in writing quality and alignment as blood alcohol concentration increases. Literacy and education levels may also be reflected in writing through skills like punctuation and paragraphing.
Forensic Ballistics is a branch of forensic science which deals with shooting incidents for the purpose of justice. Matching and identification of cartridge cases and bullets plays a key role in identifying the firearm.
The document outlines 7 classes of questioned documents that handwriting experts commonly examine:
1) Documents with questioned signatures or thumb impressions like checks or contracts
2) Documents with alleged fraudulent alterations through erasures, additions, or substitutions
3) Holograph documents where the entire authorship is questioned like letters or certificates
4) Documents where the age or date is questioned
5) Documents where the materials used like paper, ink, or typeface are questioned
6) Documents investigated based on typewriting to determine the source, date, or alterations
7) Documents identified through anonymous or disputed handwriting like letters
The expert analyzes each document and compares the questioned areas to standards to
Questioned document analysis examines physical evidence from documents like handwriting, typewriting, photocopies, and ink to determine authenticity or identify forgeries. Characteristics like defects in typewriter parts or marks from printer components can be matched between documents. Security features in currency and documents include microprinting, security threads, and special inks. Forgeries are categorized as traced, simulated, freehand, or lifted depending on the method used. Handwriting analysis examines unique writing habits and patterns to determine authorship.
forensic questioned document examinationkiran malik
Power point presentation basically related to document examination in forensic science laboratories, related various facilities and was related to expert evidences.
introductory information related to the field of firearms identification; the evidences, the principles involeved in their examination and the categories of guns.
This document discusses different types of signature forgeries and their detection. It outlines eight main types of forgeries: traced, simulated, practiced, spurious, transplanted, computerized, color copy, and trickery. For each type, it provides a brief definition and characteristics that could identify the forgery. The document also lists characteristics of genuine signatures such as pen movement, lifts, and hesitations. It concludes by noting signs that could indicate a forgery and advising getting an additional signature or consulting a handwriting expert if doubt exists.
This document discusses different types of handwriting forgery. It defines forgery as making a false document dishonestly or fraudulently. There are several types of forgeries, including freehand forgery where the forger imitates the writing, traced forgery where the forger traces the writing, forgery by memory where the forger relies on mental impressions, and forgery by impersonation where someone impersonates another person. The document also discusses methods of tracing like using glass plates or carbon paper, and disguising handwriting. Identification of forgeries examines differences in writing habits, letter designs, and similarities between the forged and original writings.
This document discusses forgery and its types. It defines forgery as falsely making or altering a writing that affects another person's legal rights or obligations, whether or not it includes the forger's name. The main types of forgery discussed are check fraud, counterfeiting paper money and identity documents, credit card theft, and contract alterations. Methods of forgery include simulated forgery by copying a genuine signature, traced forgery by tracing a genuine signature, and blind forgery of signatures that do not exist.
The document discusses questioned documents and provides definitions and examples of different types of questioned documents. It covers two levels of information that can be obtained from documents - superficial and deeper evidence. It also lists different types of evidence that can be analyzed from documents, including identifying the author or determining authenticity. The document provides a brief history of the field and discusses tools and techniques used in analysis, such as ultraviolet light, infrared examination, video spectral comparator, and electrostatic detection apparatus.
This document discusses various methods used to alter documents, including erasure and obliteration. It notes that erasures can be detected under microscopic examination but may not reveal the original text. Obliteration through chemicals is invisible to the naked eye but can be seen under microscopy. Infrared luminescence examination can determine if different inks were used for original text versus obliterated text, but recovery is impossible if the same ink was used.
1) Manual typewriters produce identifiable characteristics over time such as misaligned or damaged letters that can be used to match documents to a specific machine.
2) Electric typewriters use either a daisy wheel or golf ball to print letters, which deteriorate with use and produce flaws that appear across documents from the same machine.
3) Printers are more difficult to trace to a specific device than typewriters, but laser printers may transfer tiny scratches that offer identifying evidence.
This document discusses various methods for examining documents to detect alterations or forgeries. It describes how erasures, overwritten text, and chemical treatments can be detected through microscopic analysis, ultraviolet light, infrared photography, and digital image processing. Chromatography and ink libraries can be used to match ink between known and questioned documents. Paper composition can also provide clues through features like watermarks.
This document discusses fingerprint classification and provides details on fingerprint patterns including loops, whorls, arches and their variations. It explains the fingerprint classification formula which uses values assigned to fingerprint patterns on each finger to determine the primary, secondary, sub-secondary and final classifications. These classifications allow fingerprints to be systematically categorized and identified.
Individual handwriting characteristics are unique to each person and include things like stroke direction and curvature, pen pauses where the pen stops touching the page, pen lifts where the pen is removed from the page, placement of dots, crossings, and punctuation, hesitations seen in vertical or curved lines, embellishments added for style, abbreviations of common letters or words, and distinctive ways of making the cross on "t" and dot on "i". These characteristics are developed unconsciously over time and differ between genuine and forged writing.
Fingerprint identification has traditionally relied on comparing 12-16 matching ridge points between two prints. Recently there has been a shift to "ridgeology" where examiners consider additional features like ridge patterns, structures, and scars. Possible features for comparison include the overall ridge pattern, individual ridge patterns like endings and bifurcations, and individual ridge structures like width and pore position. Fingerprints can be classified by their level 1 overall pattern, then compared at levels 2 and 3 based on individual ridge characteristics. Proper identification requires analysis, comparison of visible features, and verification between prints. While 12 points was traditionally used, the probability of duplication is considered rather than a set number of points.
The document discusses standards required for handwriting comparisons. It states that collected standards, which are genuine documents written naturally, are preferred over request standards which are written at the request of investigators. It provides guidance on obtaining adequate samples, including getting 20-25 signatures or 4-5 handwritten pages and samples within 2-3 years unless health has changed. When getting request standards, the writer should be dictated to, the writing conditions duplicated, and the questioned writing kept isolated to avoid influencing the samples.
Questioned documents are any objects whose authenticity is in doubt, including handwritten or typed documents. Forensic document examination uses scientific analysis to examine questioned documents and provide evidence about their authenticity. Common types of questioned documents include wills, checks, agreements, and passports. Document examiners analyze aspects like handwriting, signatures, paper, ink, printers, and impressions to determine if a document has been altered or forged. This helps determine the legitimacy of documents in legal cases.
Forensic Science - 07 Casts and impressionsIan Anderson
This document discusses different types of impression evidence, including patent impressions, latent impressions, and plastic impressions. It also covers shoe impressions, tire tread impressions, and dental patterns. Shoe impressions can provide information about a person's size, weight, activities, and gait. Tire tread impressions can indicate the make and model of a vehicle. Dental patterns can be used to identify remains or link a bite mark to a suspect. The case of Ted Bundy is discussed as an example where dental impressions from a bite mark left on a victim were used to identify and convict Bundy.
The document provides guidance on taking legible fingerprints. It describes fingerprint patterns such as loops, whorls and arches. It explains how to take rolled fingerprints by rolling each finger from nail to nail. Plain impressions should be taken simultaneously at a 45 degree angle. The quality of fingerprints should be checked for clarity, completeness and correct positioning in rolled and plain blocks. Notations should be made for any missing fingerprints and certain abnormalities. All required fields must be completed for criminal and civil submissions to avoid rejection.
The document discusses various techniques used in handwriting and document analysis. It covers topics such as historical dating of documents, fraud investigation, analysis of paper/ink, techniques for examining forgeries and alterations, and comparing handwriting samples. The core techniques include analyzing characteristics of handwriting style, paper fibers, ink composition, indentations, and marks from copying/printing devices. The goal is to determine the authenticity and origin of questioned documents through scientific examination and comparison with known samples.
This document discusses factors that can affect handwriting, including intrinsic factors, circumstantial factors, and temporal/induced states of the writer. Intrinsic factors include imitation of others' writing styles and sinistrality. Circumstantial factors include writing conditions/materials. Temporal states that can influence writing include consumption of alcohol, hallucinogens, fatigue, and hypnosis. The effects of these factors are described, such as how alcohol consumption can cause deterioration in writing quality and alignment as blood alcohol concentration increases. Literacy and education levels may also be reflected in writing through skills like punctuation and paragraphing.
Forensic Ballistics is a branch of forensic science which deals with shooting incidents for the purpose of justice. Matching and identification of cartridge cases and bullets plays a key role in identifying the firearm.
The document outlines 7 classes of questioned documents that handwriting experts commonly examine:
1) Documents with questioned signatures or thumb impressions like checks or contracts
2) Documents with alleged fraudulent alterations through erasures, additions, or substitutions
3) Holograph documents where the entire authorship is questioned like letters or certificates
4) Documents where the age or date is questioned
5) Documents where the materials used like paper, ink, or typeface are questioned
6) Documents investigated based on typewriting to determine the source, date, or alterations
7) Documents identified through anonymous or disputed handwriting like letters
The expert analyzes each document and compares the questioned areas to standards to
Questioned document analysis examines physical evidence from documents like handwriting, typewriting, photocopies, and ink to determine authenticity or identify forgeries. Characteristics like defects in typewriter parts or marks from printer components can be matched between documents. Security features in currency and documents include microprinting, security threads, and special inks. Forgeries are categorized as traced, simulated, freehand, or lifted depending on the method used. Handwriting analysis examines unique writing habits and patterns to determine authorship.
forensic questioned document examinationkiran malik
Power point presentation basically related to document examination in forensic science laboratories, related various facilities and was related to expert evidences.
introductory information related to the field of firearms identification; the evidences, the principles involeved in their examination and the categories of guns.
This document discusses different types of signature forgeries and their detection. It outlines eight main types of forgeries: traced, simulated, practiced, spurious, transplanted, computerized, color copy, and trickery. For each type, it provides a brief definition and characteristics that could identify the forgery. The document also lists characteristics of genuine signatures such as pen movement, lifts, and hesitations. It concludes by noting signs that could indicate a forgery and advising getting an additional signature or consulting a handwriting expert if doubt exists.
This document discusses different types of handwriting forgery. It defines forgery as making a false document dishonestly or fraudulently. There are several types of forgeries, including freehand forgery where the forger imitates the writing, traced forgery where the forger traces the writing, forgery by memory where the forger relies on mental impressions, and forgery by impersonation where someone impersonates another person. The document also discusses methods of tracing like using glass plates or carbon paper, and disguising handwriting. Identification of forgeries examines differences in writing habits, letter designs, and similarities between the forged and original writings.
This document provides an overview of examining questioned documents. It discusses examining the paper, ink, writing, stamps, and other features for signs of alteration, addition, or substitution that could indicate a forgery. Features like wire marks, watermarks, erasures, folds, and impressions are analyzed. The goal is to determine if a document's origin, appearance, content, or circumstances raise suspicions about its authenticity by comparing its characteristics. A variety of tools like magnifying glasses, photography, and light analysis can be used to carefully examine documents for any anomalies.
The document provides information on examining coins and banknotes to determine if they are counterfeit. It describes several methods for examination, including using a magnifying glass, checking magnetic properties, measuring size and weight, examining surface features, and listening for sound. Specific checks are outlined such as verifying the security thread, hologram, microprinting, color, and tactile features. The document also lists pertinent laws regarding counterfeiting and what to do if a counterfeit note is encountered.
The document discusses different types of printers and how they can be identified during forensic examination. It describes impact printers, inkjet printers, and laser printers. It notes that impact printers may leave unique tool marks but laser and inkjet printers typically do not. The document also discusses photocopiers and how defects on the drum can be transferred and potentially link a copy to a specific machine. Fax machines often include transmission identifiers that may indicate the machine.
Romanticism diminished in popularity in the 19th century as drama went through a period of conflict. Serious romantics wanted plays to target a sensitive audience, limiting their scope, while extremists wanted closet dramas meant to be read not performed. By the 1840s, romanticism was no longer a movement, though it did not completely change theatre. Plays shifted toward realism depicting everyday life as social issues emerged with industrialization and inequality.
Receivership and liquidation Accounts
Being a Paper Presented at Business Recovery and Insolvency Practitioners Association of Nigeria (BRIPAN) on Friday, August 18, 2023.
Sangyun Lee, 'Why Korea's Merger Control Occasionally Fails: A Public Choice ...Sangyun Lee
Presentation slides for a session held on June 4, 2024, at Kyoto University. This presentation is based on the presenter’s recent paper, coauthored with Hwang Lee, Professor, Korea University, with the same title, published in the Journal of Business Administration & Law, Volume 34, No. 2 (April 2024). The paper, written in Korean, is available at <https://shorturl.at/GCWcI>.
Business law for the students of undergraduate level. The presentation contains the summary of all the chapters under the syllabus of State University, Contract Act, Sale of Goods Act, Negotiable Instrument Act, Partnership Act, Limited Liability Act, Consumer Protection Act.
Lifting the Corporate Veil. Power Point Presentationseri bangash
"Lifting the Corporate Veil" is a legal concept that refers to the judicial act of disregarding the separate legal personality of a corporation or limited liability company (LLC). Normally, a corporation is considered a legal entity separate from its shareholders or members, meaning that the personal assets of shareholders or members are protected from the liabilities of the corporation. However, there are certain situations where courts may decide to "pierce" or "lift" the corporate veil, holding shareholders or members personally liable for the debts or actions of the corporation.
Here are some common scenarios in which courts might lift the corporate veil:
Fraud or Illegality: If shareholders or members use the corporate structure to perpetrate fraud, evade legal obligations, or engage in illegal activities, courts may disregard the corporate entity and hold those individuals personally liable.
Undercapitalization: If a corporation is formed with insufficient capital to conduct its intended business and meet its foreseeable liabilities, and this lack of capitalization results in harm to creditors or other parties, courts may lift the corporate veil to hold shareholders or members liable.
Failure to Observe Corporate Formalities: Corporations and LLCs are required to observe certain formalities, such as holding regular meetings, maintaining separate financial records, and avoiding commingling of personal and corporate assets. If these formalities are not observed and the corporate structure is used as a mere façade, courts may disregard the corporate entity.
Alter Ego: If there is such a unity of interest and ownership between the corporation and its shareholders or members that the separate personalities of the corporation and the individuals no longer exist, courts may treat the corporation as the alter ego of its owners and hold them personally liable.
Group Enterprises: In some cases, where multiple corporations are closely related or form part of a single economic unit, courts may pierce the corporate veil to achieve equity, particularly if one corporation's actions harm creditors or other stakeholders and the corporate structure is being used to shield culpable parties from liability.
सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने यह भी माना था कि मजिस्ट्रेट का यह कर्तव्य है कि वह सुनिश्चित करे कि अधिकारी पीएमएलए के तहत निर्धारित प्रक्रिया के साथ-साथ संवैधानिक सुरक्षा उपायों का भी उचित रूप से पालन करें।
What are the common challenges faced by women lawyers working in the legal pr...lawyersonia
The legal profession, which has historically been male-dominated, has experienced a significant increase in the number of women entering the field over the past few decades. Despite this progress, women lawyers continue to encounter various challenges as they strive for top positions.
The Future of Criminal Defense Lawyer in India.pdfveteranlegal
https://veteranlegal.in/defense-lawyer-in-india/ | Criminal defense Lawyer in India has always been a vital aspect of the country's legal system. As defenders of justice, criminal Defense Lawyer play a critical role in ensuring that individuals accused of crimes receive a fair trial and that their constitutional rights are protected. As India evolves socially, economically, and technologically, the role and future of criminal Defense Lawyer are also undergoing significant changes. This comprehensive blog explores the current landscape, challenges, technological advancements, and prospects for criminal Defense Lawyer in India.
2. WHAT IS
FORGERY?
Forgery maybe produced under many processes
ranging from the mere writing of the name without
any attempt to resemble the genuine model signature
to the more complicated process of tracing or
simulation to produce a close resemblance or
facsimile of the genuine signature.
4. CATEGORIES OF FORGERY:
1. Simulated Forgery - Known as copied signature since it is a free hand
drawing in imitation of model writing. This is the most perfect forgery
in which not only the form but also the manner of writing is closely
imitated. Simulated forgery is also of two kinds:
• Simulated with model before the forger - the forger avails himself
of a model signature which he places before him in order to copy the
same.
• Simulated free hand forgery - in some instances where the forger
could not avail of a genuine signature as a model, he merely relies
from memory his recollection of the pattern of the signature which
he may have by virtue of long association or frequent transactions.
5. 2. Traced Forgery - is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact facsimile
of a genuine writing by some tracing process. It is intended to produce not only the form but also
the size, proportions and exact relations of all the parts of the original. Traced forgery is of three (3)
kinds:
• Carbon Process (Carbon Outline) - is that type whereby the forgery interleaves a carbon paper
between the genuine signature (top sheet) and the document intended to be forged (bottom
sheet).
• Indention Process (Canal-like Outline) - is that type whereby indentation or canal-like outline of
the genuine signature is produced on the fraudulent document (bottom sheet) by tracing the
outline of the genuine signature (top sheet) with considerable pressure with any sharp pointed
instrument.
• Transmitted light or projection process - is that kind whereby the fraudulent document is
placed immediately above the genuine document (signature) and with strong light directed
through the two superimposed sheets of paper from under, with transparent glass used as writing
surface. The outline which is seen through the upper sheet is then traced with any suitable writing
instrument.
7. 3. Simple Forgery (Spurious Signature) - the forger does not try to copy
a model writing but writes something that is ordinarily call a writing or
signature. For this, a forger uses a false name and makes a rapid stroke,
disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called
disguise.
° This is commonly used in fictitious personal case and invariably by the
check’s thief who steals, endorses and passes government, corporation or
company check or who procures printed check form, completes and
endorses same with fictitious signature in order to make it pass as
genuine.
° Comparison with two or more genuine ones is enough in arriving at a
preliminary finding of non-identity.
8. INDICATIONSOFFORGERY(SIMULATEDANDTRACED):
1. Tremulous and broken connecting
strokes between letters.
2. Hesitation and pen stops at
unusual places.
3. Unnatural pen lifts
4. No rhythm
5. No contrast between upward
and downward strokes.
6. Slow writing - angular
form and concealed joints.
7. Blunt beginning and ending
(Initial and terminal strokes).
8. Carefulness or unusual care
and deliberation.
9. Poor line quality.
10. Placement of critical marks
just over the stem of letters
11. Absence of spontaneity.
12. Misplaced shading.
13. Restrained writing - lack of
freedom
14. No variation in pen pressure. 15. Presence of carbon, pencil or
indentation along the lines of strokes.
Evidence of such forgery is manifest in the formal, broken, nervous lines, the uneven flow of the ink
and the often retouched lines and shades. The most common symptom of forgery is the quality of line, pointing
toward the manner in which the writing was made. But, it is not recognized and correctly interpreted by observers
who give attention to form only in a disputed writing. The evidence is unmistakable when studied with the aid of
the microscope.
9. BACKGROUNDPOINTERSREGARDINGSIMULATEDAND
TRACEDFORGERIES:
° The forger makes it difficult, if not altogether inaccessible to do his work in a skillful
manner brought about by:
1. Awareness that forgery is a crime;
2. Fear of discovery and the penalty therefore, and
3. Anxiety to do the work well.
° For one to be able to forge successfully, the forger:
1. Must be able to decipher the significant handwriting characteristics of the
person whose signature is being simulated;
2. must be able to eliminate all his handwriting characteristics; and
3. must have the muscular skill necessary to produce the writing being imitated.
10. ° Adjusting one’s writing impulse is disturbed when muscles become tense as a result of extra effort to
produce a good forgery and the best result can only be achieved when muscles are somewhat relaxed
so that all work together in harmonious relation to each other.
° Simulation as well as tracing gives attention to CONSPICOUS FEATURES OF FORM ONLY and
not to the many other details entering into the process of genuine writing.
° Where too much attention is given to form and the process of writing itself, the condition becomes
such that:
1. the forger will find even his own handwriting is very difficult to write in a free natural manner;
and
2. will find that imitating a writing successfully is much more difficult to do.
° Where form characteristics are not even good enough as done by the forger, then forgery fails in the
very elementary process. Writing that is slow and hesitating as produced by interrupted, changing
movement impulse is more easily imitated, for its manner of production is similar to that of imitation
process.
° If the forger possesses a skill superior to that of the genuine writing, the forgery may show a higher
degree of muscular skill and control than the writing being imitated.
11. “The most basic and
fundamental defect in
forgery is not as is correctly
thought of by many, a
divergence in form, but the
quality of line or stroke
showing tremors
(fraudulent), hesitations,
stops at unusual places
indicating a poor and
defective line quality.”
12. TRACING
is resorted to by a forger who lacks the necessary skill required in a free hand
imitation.
is a clumsy one as it is usually a poor piece of work and the easiest to detect
because it is not actually writing but a drawing. It is intended to reproduce
not only the form but also the size, proportions and exact relation of all the
parts of the original including minute details of each line, strokes and even a
dot - being followed closely as allowed by the method employed and the skill
of the operator will permit.
Traced forgery usually shows a decrepit, hesitating quality of line, hesitations
as shown by pen stops at unusual places, abnormal changes of direction of
strokes, inconsistent pen premature and an unnatural movement,
interruptions in a more obvious manner than simulation, suspicious pen lifts,
disconnections and careful joinings
13. Traced forgery will probably be defective
in one or more of the following
particulars:
° natural movement, freedom and speed of
writing;
° quality of line of strokes;
° pen lifts, retouching and shading;
° selection of model signature;
° pencil, carbon or indentation outline
pointing to a tracing process;
° practical identity of the questioned
signatures or writings with a genuine model
Some methods used in illustrating traced
forgeries are:
° Actual measurement of the signatures to
illustrate identity;
° Superimposition of the signatures by
transmitted light;
° Taking photographs of the signatures and
producing transparencies as to easily
superimpose one over the other;
° Taking photograph of the signatures under
transparent glass plates (having uniform ruled
squares) as to show all parts agreeing within said
squares;
° Taking photographs of signatures with various
lines drawn over the photographs to show
identical measurement.
14. ALTERATIONS IN DOCUMENTS:
ALTERATIONS
are changes which usually affect the original meaning of a document,
made either at the stage of preparation and are already parts of the
document when it is signed, sealed and witnessed or fraudulently
altered after its execution.
The alteration should be considered in a thorough and careful manner
to be able to determine what the reasonable inference is from all the
facts. It therefore, becomes necessary to distinguish that which is
fraudulent from that which is a genuine alteration.
An obvious necessary change in a document often is evidence not of fraud but of genuineness. A delicate and partly
concealed change may be very suspicious. Fraudulent change naturally, is made in a hidden manner and it may never be
discovered if special attention is not directed to this subject.
15. Alterations are made in any of the following manners:
1. Erasure – It may be done through:
• Mechanical – by rubbing of with rubber eraser or scrapping with sharp
instrument, and
• Chemical – by directly applying ink eradicator or other bleaching solutions on ink
lines.
2. Addition – Any matter made as part of the document after its original preparation
that altered or changed the original meaning of the document may be referred to as
addition.
3. Substitution - Changing the original meaning of a document by substituting the
whole genuine sheet or page with fraudulent one where a document consists of
more than one sheets or pages.
16. 4. Interlineation or Intercalation – insertion of words or
phrases between lines or paragraph.
5. Obliteration – the blotting out or smearing over the writing
to make the original writing invisible or indecipherable.
17. TREMORS
• Is a characteristic in writing showing irregular
shaky lines that deviate from uniformed strokes.
• These maybe due to lack of skill on the part of the
writer; to self-consciousness during writing process;
or to hesitation which is the result of copying or
imitating process.
• Lack of smoothness - tremor maybe due to
uncontrollable nervousness on the part of the
writer or in illiterate writing.
• Clumsiness - partly due to lack of clear mental
impressions of the form which is being made.
• Tremor of age, of illiteracy and of weakness is not
always distinguished from each other, but can
usually distinguish from tremor of fraud.
18. 1. Tremors of age and extreme weakness:
° Show unusual and erratic departures of the line from its
intended course, and of movements beyond the control
of the writer, particularly in downward strokes.
° Genuine weak or decrepit writing frequently shows
awkward digression or distortion, which maybe due to
imperfect sight; and general irregularity caused by
involuntary tremor.
° Signatures showing tremor of age often show very
uneven alignment and may disregard entirely a line near
which they are written, especially if the first line is
indistinct.
° Old age writing indicating lack of muscular control does
not usually show fine continues hairlines, but many
strokes are rough and are made with considerable
pressure.
2. Tremors of illiteracy:
° The changes of direction are not apt to be as numerous
as in tremor of age or weakness, and in this writing
omission of parts of letters or strokes are not common.
° Illiterate tremor is characterized by a general irregularity
that is not due to weakness but to lack of skill and
mental uncertainty, resulting from unfamiliar with the
whole writing process.
° Illiterate writing even on ruled paper, frequently shows a
pronounce irregularity in alignment, some of it being
above the line and some through the line, or the word
may each go up from the line so that the end of each
word is higher than the beginning.
° Disconnections or pen lifts between letters and words
maybe due to lack of movement control.
KIND OF TREMORS :
a. Natural Tremors – consist of the following:
19. b. Tremor of Fraud:
Writing is smooth and strong and shows no tremulous strokes.
Inequality in movement at any place in any stroke or line, with too strong and vigorous
combined with weak, hesitating strokes.
Frequent interruptions in movement, unequal distribution of ink in upward and downward
strokes and especially the varying pen pressures due to changes in speeds and interruptions
in movement.
Shows striking inconsistently with itself in movement and thus contains evidence of
unnaturalness that indicates a lack of genuineness without comparison with any other
writings.
Carefully drawn from the extreme beginning to the very end.
Contains delicate and unnecessary retouching and repairing of fine lines, which mark it as
undoubtedly spurious.