The document discusses quantum computing, explaining its basics such as superposition and entanglement, and how these principles distinguish quantum computers from classical ones. It covers the capabilities of quantum computing in various fields, including optimization, cryptography, and simulation, as well as current technological advancements and challenges in the field. Lastly, it outlines future prospects, including advancements in quantum algorithms and potential to break existing encryption methods.

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© Copyright National University of Singapore. All Rights Reserved.
Technology Discussion:
Quantum Computing
Jonathan Tan
4 Jun 2021
Image Source: https://www.roche.com/quantum-computing.htm

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Agenda
• Quantum Computing Basics
• Quantum Computing Features
• Quantum Computing Capabilities
• Types of Problems Solvable by Quantum Computing
• Current State of Technology
• Future State of Technology
• Quantum Computing in NUS
• Patent Landscape

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Quantum Computing Basics
• Quantum Mechanics
ᵒ Superposition
- The ability of a quantum system to be in multiple states at the same time until it is
measured
ᵒ Entanglement
- The way that particles of energy/matter can become correlated to predictably interact with
each other regardless of how far apart they are
- Knowing the spin state of one entangled particle, whether the direction of the spin is up or
down, allows one to know that the spin of its mate is in the opposite direction
- Einstein called it "spooky action at a distance"
• Quantum Computer
ᵒ Classical Computer: uses bits
- Tiny switches, with ‘off’ position represented by 0, ‘on’ position represented by 1
ᵒ Quantum Computer: uses qubits
- In state of superposition, where they are both on and off at the same time, or somewhere
on a spectrum between the two
- Allows for uncertainty
Sources :
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/superposition
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/entanglement

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Quantum Computing Features
• With Superposition: Able to take multiple paths simultaneously
ᵒ A quantum computer may have solved a problem in minutes that would
take the fastest conventional supercomputer more than 10,000 years
ᵒ A 2-qubit machine allows for 4 (22) calculations simultaneously, a 3-qubit
machine allows for 8 (22) calculations simultaneously etc.
ᵒ In principle, a quantum computer with 300 qubits could perform more
calculations in an instant than there are atoms in the visible universe
• With Entanglement: Able to link 2 particles even if physically
separated
ᵒ Multi-qubit entanglement is a fundamental property for potential quantum
computers, to aid information processing tasks
ᵒ The simplest form of entanglement, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) pairs,
are maximally entangled pairs of qubits. Possible use in:
- Quantum teleportation: Technique for transferring quantum information from a sender at
one location to a receiver some distance away
- Superdense coding: quantum communication protocol to transmit information in classical
bits securely via qubits, from a sender to a receiver pre-sharing an entangled state
Sources :
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained
https://theconversation.com/why-are-scientists-so-excited-about-a-recently-claimed-quantum-computing-milestone-124082
https://www.edn.com/the-basics-of-quantum-computing-a-tutorial/
https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/hardware/qubit-supremacy
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-49805-7
https://quantumcomputing.stackexchange.com/questions/1663/how-are-epr-pairs-used-in-quantum-computing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_teleportation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superdense coding

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Quantum Computing Capabilities
• Simulate Complicated Systems
ᵒ Sophisticated models may be expanded to factor in significantly more variables,
producing more precise models and increasing their predictive power.
ᵒ Examples
- Predicting financial markets
- Improving weather forecasts
- Chemistry & biology research
• Cryptography
ᵒ Allowing for decryption of current encryption methods
- A bulk of current encryption systems rely on factoring: being able to break large numbers
into prime numbers
- Shor’s algorithm to factor large numbers
ᵒ To perfectly secure communications from eavesdropping or interception, since the
very act of intercepting the data would corrupt it
- Uncertainty Principle: idea that you can’t measure something without influencing the result
- Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): Allowing for unbreakable encryption keys that could not
be copied or hacked, enabling two parties to produce a shared random secret key known
only to them Sources :
https://interestingengineering.com/5-intractable-problems-quantum-computing-will-solve
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-encryption-system-protects-data-from-quantum-computers/
https://levelup.gitconnected.com/what-kind-of-problems-can-quantum-computers-solve-63234eb9fd76
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum key distribution

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Quantum Computing Capabilities
• Solve Intractable Optimisation Problems
ᵒ Via superposition, quantum computing can reduce the most difficult optimization
problems down to a manageable number of operations
ᵒ Example
- Route Optimisation for Supply Chain Logistics
• Boost to Big Data & Artificial Intelligence
ᵒ Quantum computing allows for quick search, detection, analysis, integration, and
diagnosis from large data sets, and uncover data patterns or anomalies at a
quick speed
ᵒ Quantum computing algorithms enhances machine learning with faster training
and testing
• Generating Pure Randomness
ᵒ When measuring the system in superposition, it will “collapse” into just one of
those states, which is always fundamentally random
ᵒ Example
- Random number generator
Sources :
https://interestingengineering.com/5-intractable-problems-quantum-computing-will-solve
https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-to-turn-a-quantum-computer-into-the-ultimate-randomness-generator-20190619/
https://www.leanix.net/en/blog/quantum-computing-and-big-data-analytics
https://www.analyticsinsight.net/machine-learning-and-big-data-in-the-quantum-computing-age/

7. © Copyright National University of Singapore. All Rights Reserved.
Quantum Computing Capabilities
• High Precision Sensors
ᵒ Quantum sensors leverage the extremely fragile state of tiny quantum
particles to provide very precise measurements
- Sensitivity of quantum particles to disturbances can be used to create ultra-responsive
measuring instruments
• Secure Quantum Networks
ᵒ Enable secure transmission of information in the form of quantum bits
between physically-separated quantum processors or endpoints
ᵒ Secure quantum communication via exchange of quantum cryptographic
keys (Quantum Key Distribution (QKD))
- May be over fiber optic cables or even via satellites
- Researchers in the Netherlands have established an entanglement-based network between 3
quantum processors for the first time, from previous attempts by others only being able to link 2
quantum processors Sources :
https://www.zdnet.com/article/quantum-sensors-could-soon-be-heading-into-space/
https://quantumxc.com/what-are-quantum-networks-and-how-do-they-work/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_network
https://www.zdnet.com/article/quantum-computing-networks-satellites-and-lots-more-qubits-china-reveals-ambitious-goals-in-five-year-plan/
https://www.zdnet.com/article/first-multi-node-quantum-network-pavis-the-way-for-the-quantum-internet/

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Types of Problems Solvable by
Quantum Computing
Sources :
https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/hardware/qubit-supremacy
https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2014/04/30/shors-algorithm-breaking-rsa-encryption/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_algorithm
https://www.nap.edu/read/25196/chapter/5#66
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_annealing
Problem Type / Domain Quantum Computing Algorithm
Optimisation • Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) - Classical optimization of
quantum operations to maximize an objective function
• Grover’s Algorithm - Searches an unstructured database or unordered list quickly
• Quantum Annealing - Finding the global minimum of a given objective function over
a given set of candidate solutions using quantum fluctuations
Cybersecurity • Shor’s Algorithm – Integer factorization breaking current encryption techniques
Simulation • Hamiltonian Simulation Algorithms – Simulating dynamics of quantum systems, via
implementation of time-evolution algorithms on a gate-based quantum computer
• Quantum Computing Algorithms
• A step-by-step procedure, where each of the steps can be performed on a quantum computer, typically
using some essential feature of quantum computation such as quantum superposition or quantum
entanglement

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Current State of Technology
• Physical Implementations of Quantum Computing being Researched
ᵒ Superconducting Quantum Computing
- Superconducting electronic circuits cooled down in dilution refrigerators
ᵒ Trapped Ions & Atoms
- Charged atomic particles confined and suspended in free space using electromagnetic fields, with
lasers are applied to induce coupling
- Ultracold atom clouds in electromagnetic traps to produce entangled twin atoms
ᵒ Photons
- Special crystals to create pairs of entangled photons
ᵒ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
- Uses the spin states of nuclei within molecules as qubits
ᵒ Quantum dots
- Nanoparticles so small that their electronic properties are governed by quantum mechanics, and
measuring the spin of electrons held by silicon qubit
ᵒ Nanowires / Quantum Wires
- Electrically conducting wire with nanometer dimensions
Sources :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/02/210224143434.htm
https://cen.acs.org/materials/electronic-materials/Hotdots-quantum-computing/98/web/2020/04

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Current State of Technology
• State of the Art Quantum Computers
ᵒ Measurement via Quantum Volume
- Metric that measures the capabilities and error rates of a quantum computer.
- It measures the relationship between number and quality of qubits, circuit connectivity, and error rates
of operations.
Sources :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_volume
https://www.forbes.com/sites/moorinsights/2020/08/20/ibm-announces-it-doubled-quantum-volume-from-32-to-64/?sh=493b2f7aa404
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/09/ibm-promises-1000-qubit-quantum-computer-milestone-2023
https://www.honeywell.com/us/en/press/2020/10/honeywell-releases-next-generation-of-quantum-computer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycamore_processor
https://www.ibm.com/quantum-computing/learn/what-is-quantum-computing/
https://www.dwavesys.com/press-releases/d-wave-announces-general-availability-first-quantum-computer-built-business
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1905.07240.pdf
https://newsroom.ibm.com/2019-01-08-IBM-Unveils-Worlds-First-Integrated-Quantum-Computing-System-for-Commercial-Use , https://www.ibm.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-at-ibm/
https://www.zdnet.com/article/quantum-computing-honeywell-just-quadrupled-the-power-of-its-computer/
Company Quantum Volume Qubits Implementation
Honeywell 512 10 Trapped-ion
IBM 64 27 (older version had
53, newest has 65)
Superconducting transmon qubit, with cryogenic
engineering that delivers a continuous cold and isolated
environment
Google ? 54 Superconducting chip named Sycamore
D-Wave ? 5000 May not considered a generic quantum computer.
Implements specialized quantum annealing via adiabatic
process. Superconducting qubits encoded by magnetic spin
states.

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Current State of Technology
• Quantum Computing Platforms on the Cloud
ᵒ IBM Quantum Experience
- Cloud access to advanced quantum computers
- Program and prototype with Qiskit software, an open source software development kit
(SDK) for working with quantum computers
ᵒ Microsoft Azure Quantum
- Full-stack cloud service designed to allow users remote access to quantum computers
- Development with open-source Quantum Development Kit (QDK) with the Q# quantum
programming language
ᵒ Amazon Braket
- Fully managed quantum computing service, with development environment to explore and
build quantum algorithms, test them on quantum circuit (ordered sequence of quantum
gates) simulators, and run them on different quantum hardware technologies.
- Delivers quantum computing as an AWS Cloud service
ᵒ Others, including D-Wave’s Leap, Atom Computing, Xanadu, Zapata etc.
Sources :
https://quantum-computing.ibm.com/
https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/Azure-Quantum
https://cloudblogs.microsoft.com/quantum/2021/02/01/azure-quantum-preview
https://aws.amazon.com/braket/ /
https://www.zdnet.com/article/eight-leading-quantum-computing-companies-in-2020/

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Current State of Technology
• Challenges
ᵒ Quantum computers are incredibly sensitive to interference, leading to
decoherence (loss of coherence)
- They must be isolated to ensure nothing interferes with the delicate quantum states of the
qubits
- Kept in vacuum chambers containing fewer particles than outer space, or in refrigerators
colder than anything in the universe
- However, there is a need to find a way to interact with the qubits to carry out instructions
on them
ᵒ Errors occur much more often than with classical computing
- Error correction is the dominant task that quantum architectures need to perform well
- Quantum error correction schemes do exist but consume such a large number of qubits
that relatively few qubits remain for actual computation.
ᵒ Qubit control of multiple qubits require low-latency
- In the order of 10’s of nanoseconds (​1 nanosecond = 1/1 000 000 000 of a second)
Sources :
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained
https://theconversation.com/why-are-scientists-so-excited-about-a-recently-claimed-quantum-computing-milestone-124082
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/1-4020-8068-9_8
https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/hardware/an-optimists-view-of-the-4-challenges-to-quantum-computing
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-problem-with-quantum-computers/

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Future State of Technology
• Quantum Supremacy
ᵒ The point at which a quantum computer can outperform a classical computer
- No clear consensus in number of qubits required for quantum supremacy. May range from 53 to 10k
• Advances in Hardware
ᵒ IBM outlined its roadmap for its quantum computing development that includes
- 433-qubit IBM Quantum Osprey system in 2022
- 1,121-qubit device in 2023
- Ultimate goal of building a million-qubit quantum system
ᵒ Research in quantum computers being made with industrial-grade silicon chips using existing
manufacturing processes
- Researchers from UCL were able to isolate and measure the quantum state of a single electron (the qubit) in a
silicon transistor manufactured using a Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology, similar to
that used to make chips in computer processors
- Startup InfinityQ developed quantum analog circuits with chips made with CMOS silicon and no exotic material.
Their analog circuit behaves exactly like an electron would behave inside an atom, due to how the circuits are
connected
• Advances in Algorithms
ᵒ Quantum algorithms to be kept short to enable execution of more processing steps within the
constrained time frame before decoherence
- Machine learning to translate, or compile, a quantum circuit into an optimally short equivalent
- Using currently available quantum computers to compile their own quantum algorithms
Sources :
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained
https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/computing/hardware/qubit-supremacy
https://www.zdnet.com/article/ibm-plots-quantum-computing-roadmap-eyes-1121-qubit-system-in-2023/
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-problem-with-quantum-computers/
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210331130905.htm
https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-future-is-analog-startup-infinityq-pushes-novel-quantum-computer/

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Future State of Technology
• Hybrid Quantum-Classical Architectures
ᵒ While we wait for large-scale quantum computers to become available,
hybrid quantum-classical architectures are proposed to allow for the use of
small, unreliable quantum processors to evaluate large quantum circuits
- E.g. Microsoft Quantum announced the creation of an intermediate bridge that will allow
Q# and other programming languages to be used to send instructions to different quantum
hardware platforms
- Bridges and enables both classical and quantum computing resources to work together
• Breaking Existing Encryption
ᵒ Quantum computers will be able to crack the existing public-key
infrastructure, e.g.
- 128-bit AES encryption by 2029
- RSA-2048 encrypted messages with a 20-million qubit computer
• Identifying Use Cases
ᵒ Business leaders and experts in different sectors must collaborate with
quantum researchers and engineers in an interdisciplinary fashion
- To facilitate the development of industry-specific quantum solutions for the industries
Sources :
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10676-017-9438-0
https://physicsworld.com/a/quantum-technology-why-the-future-is-already-on-its-way/
https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/voices.uchicago.edu/dist/0/2327/files/2019/12/HybridQuantumPMES.pd
https://hbr.org/2020/09/are-you-ready-for-the-quantum-computing-revolution
https://www.idginsiderpro.com/article/3532897/how-close-are-we-to-breaking-encryption-with-quantum-computing.html

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Quantum Computing in NUS
• Centre for Quantum Technologies: CQT
ᵒ A Research Centre of Excellence in Singapore, bringing together
physicists, computer scientists and engineers to do basic research on
quantum physics and to build devices based on quantum phenomena.
ᵒ Established in December 2007 with support from NRF and MOE. CQT
is hosted by NUS and also has staff at NTU.
ᵒ Research Areas
- Quantum Communication & Security
- Quantum Computation & Simulation
- Quantum Sensing & Metrology
- Advanced Instruments
- Basic Science
Source : https://www.quantumlah.org/

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Quantum Computing in NUS
• Centre for Quantum Technologies: CQT
ᵒ Startups
- Atomionics
 Building atom-interferometry based sensing systems for navigation and exploration.
- Entropica Labs
 Developing software tools to enable scalable, useful and accessible quantum machine
learning and optimisation.
- Horizon Quantum Computing
 Developing a new generation of programming tools to simplify and expedite the
process of developing software for quantum computers, and democratising the
development of quantum-enhanced applications
- S-Fifteen Instruments
 Offers equipment for quantum control as well as hardware devices for quantum-safe
solutions, including those for Quantum Key Distribution and a Quantum Random
Number Generator
- SpeQtral
 Building space-based quantum communication systems
Source : https://www.quantumlah.org/

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