This document discusses algal technology and provides classifications of algae. It begins by defining algae as organisms capable of photosynthesis that are distinguished from land plants. It then discusses the history of classifying algae and provides Fritsch's 1935 classification system, which divides algae into 11 classes based on characteristics like pigmentation and reproduction methods. The document also discusses Smith's 1955 classification system and general characteristics of algae like their habitats, nutrition, and reproduction. It provides details on each of Fritsch's 11 algae classes.
This ppt has been made by Xanthophyceae also known as yellow green algae. It occupies second position in algae classification by F.E Fritsch. It is classified into four orders. It contain xanthophyll in large amount that gives it yellow colour, hence it is commonly know as yellow green algae.
Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that can be unicellular or multicellular, and are classified into 11 classes based on characteristics like pigmentation and type of flagella. Their life cycles vary but include haplontic, diplontic, isomorphic, and heteromorphic types, with some exhibiting alternation between haploid and diploid generations while others reproduce asexually. Major classes discussed are Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae, and Myxophyceae.
- Xanthophyta, or yellow-green algae, is a division of algae that includes 375 species across 75 genera. They range from single-celled flagellates to simple colonial and filamentous forms.
- They are mostly found in freshwater but some occur in marine and soil environments. Their cells contain chlorophyll a and beta carotene and store food as oils and fats.
- One example is the class Vaucheria, which contains about 70 species. Vaucheria have bladder-like coenocytic thalli that are differentiated into underground rhizoidal and aerial vesicular portions.
General Characters of Rhodophyceae & Life Cycle of Polysiphonia SMGsajigeorge64
1. Polysiphonia is a genus of red algae that has a complex life cycle involving alternating haploid and diploid generations.
2. It reproduces both sexually, with separate male and female gametophytes, and asexually through carpospores and tetraspores.
3. Sexually, fertilization of an egg by a non-motile sperm produces a diploid zygote, which develops into a carposporophyte producing carpospores or a tetrasporophyte producing tetraspores.
This document discusses heterospory and the seed habit in plants. It begins by introducing heterospory as the production of two different types of spores, microspores and megaspores, which is considered a prerequisite for seed formation in plants. It then describes how certain plant species like Selaginella show heterospory, with microsporangia producing many microspores and megasporangia containing just a few megaspores. The highest evolved species of Selaginella, S. apoda, has progressed towards characteristics of seed plants like retaining its single megaspore within the sporangium for fertilization. In summary, the key steps in the evolution of the seed habit involved the development
Stelar evolution in Pteridophytes-BOTANYANJALIJAYAN6
Pteridophytes are vascular plants that reproduce via spores. They have a number of shared characteristics including lignified cell walls, tracheary elements, and an independent sporophyte generation. The stele, or central vascular cylinder, of pteridophytes can take several forms. The protostele is the simplest form, with a central xylem core surrounded by phloem. More advanced forms include the siphonostele, with a central pith, and the dictyostele, with overlapping leaf gaps. The eustele features a ring of vascular bundles around the edge of the pith.
Cyanobacteria are important in the nitrogen cycle.
Cyanobacteria are very important organisms for the health and growth of many plants. They are one of very few groups of organisms that can convert inert atmospheric nitrogen into an organic form, such as nitrate or ammonia.
This ppt has been made by Xanthophyceae also known as yellow green algae. It occupies second position in algae classification by F.E Fritsch. It is classified into four orders. It contain xanthophyll in large amount that gives it yellow colour, hence it is commonly know as yellow green algae.
Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that can be unicellular or multicellular, and are classified into 11 classes based on characteristics like pigmentation and type of flagella. Their life cycles vary but include haplontic, diplontic, isomorphic, and heteromorphic types, with some exhibiting alternation between haploid and diploid generations while others reproduce asexually. Major classes discussed are Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae, and Myxophyceae.
- Xanthophyta, or yellow-green algae, is a division of algae that includes 375 species across 75 genera. They range from single-celled flagellates to simple colonial and filamentous forms.
- They are mostly found in freshwater but some occur in marine and soil environments. Their cells contain chlorophyll a and beta carotene and store food as oils and fats.
- One example is the class Vaucheria, which contains about 70 species. Vaucheria have bladder-like coenocytic thalli that are differentiated into underground rhizoidal and aerial vesicular portions.
General Characters of Rhodophyceae & Life Cycle of Polysiphonia SMGsajigeorge64
1. Polysiphonia is a genus of red algae that has a complex life cycle involving alternating haploid and diploid generations.
2. It reproduces both sexually, with separate male and female gametophytes, and asexually through carpospores and tetraspores.
3. Sexually, fertilization of an egg by a non-motile sperm produces a diploid zygote, which develops into a carposporophyte producing carpospores or a tetrasporophyte producing tetraspores.
This document discusses heterospory and the seed habit in plants. It begins by introducing heterospory as the production of two different types of spores, microspores and megaspores, which is considered a prerequisite for seed formation in plants. It then describes how certain plant species like Selaginella show heterospory, with microsporangia producing many microspores and megasporangia containing just a few megaspores. The highest evolved species of Selaginella, S. apoda, has progressed towards characteristics of seed plants like retaining its single megaspore within the sporangium for fertilization. In summary, the key steps in the evolution of the seed habit involved the development
Stelar evolution in Pteridophytes-BOTANYANJALIJAYAN6
Pteridophytes are vascular plants that reproduce via spores. They have a number of shared characteristics including lignified cell walls, tracheary elements, and an independent sporophyte generation. The stele, or central vascular cylinder, of pteridophytes can take several forms. The protostele is the simplest form, with a central xylem core surrounded by phloem. More advanced forms include the siphonostele, with a central pith, and the dictyostele, with overlapping leaf gaps. The eustele features a ring of vascular bundles around the edge of the pith.
Cyanobacteria are important in the nitrogen cycle.
Cyanobacteria are very important organisms for the health and growth of many plants. They are one of very few groups of organisms that can convert inert atmospheric nitrogen into an organic form, such as nitrate or ammonia.
This document summarizes key details about the fern genus Pteris. It describes the systematic position of Pteris within the plant kingdom, common Indian species, and global occurrence/distribution. The morphology, anatomy, and reproductive structures of the sporophyte (fern plant) are then explained in detail, covering the rhizome, fronds, leaflets, and roots. Key anatomical features include dictyostele stele in the rhizome, vascular bundles with endodermis and pericycle, and hypostomatous leaflets. Reproduction occurs vegetatively from the rhizome as well as sexually from spores.
This document summarizes the Telome Theory, which proposes that all vascular plants evolved from a simple leafless ancestral plant called Rhynia. The theory describes how evolutionary processes like overtopping, reduction, planation, syngenesis, and curvation acted on the telomes (terminal branches) of this ancestor to produce the diversity of plant forms seen today. It provides details on these processes and how they led to the formation of leaves, stems, and other structures. While pioneering, the theory is criticized for not fully explaining the origin of microphyllous leaves in lycophytes and for lacking evidence in its application to some plant groups.
The document describes different types of life cycles in algae. It discusses haplontic, diplontic, haplodiplontic, haplobiontic, and diplobiontic life cycles. The haplontic cycle has a dominant haploid gametophytic phase and a short-lived diploid zygotic phase. The diplontic cycle is the reverse, with a dominant diploid sporophytic phase. The haplodiplontic cycle alternates between haploid and diploid phases. The haplobiontic cycle has three phases - haploid gametophyte, diploid zygote, and haploid carposporophyte. The most complex dip
This document discusses the evolution and development of gymnosperms from earlier plant groups like pteridophytes. Some key points include:
- Gymnosperms are thought to have evolved from pteridophytes, with coditales stock coming directly from pteridophytes. Coditales then gave rise to coniferales and ginkogales.
- Male and female gametophytes of gymnosperms differ from homosporous pteridophytes in being endosporous and reduced. The male gametophyte develops from pollen grains.
- There are different theories on the origin of ovules, including the axial, sui-geneges, and
This document discusses green algae. It notes that the group contains over 20,000 species that contain chlorophyll A and B which gives them their green color. About 90% are freshwater while 10% are marine or terrestrial. They exhibit a wide range of thallus forms from unicellular to filamentous or branched. Green algae store starch and sometimes oils as food reserves and reproduce through vegetative, asexual and sexual means. They are an important food source for animals and humans as they provide vitamins, minerals and carotene.
The document summarizes the types and positions of sori (clusters of sporangia) in ferns. There are three main types of sori: simplices where all sporangia mature simultaneously; gradatae where sporangia mature basipetally from distal to proximal ends; and mixtae which are a mixed aggregation of young and old sporangia. Sori can be marginal, ventral, or borne within structures like sporocarps. Some sori have an indusium or scale for protection, and these can have reniform, circular, funnel-shaped or other morphologies.
The document discusses the evolution of steles, or vascular bundles, in pteridophytes. It describes the basic types as protostelic and siphonostelic. Protostelic steles have central xylem and surrounding phloem with no pith, while siphonostelic steles have a central pith. Specific protostelic types include haplostele, actinostele, and plectostele. Siphonostelic types include cladosiphonic, phyllosiphonic, ectophloic, amphiphloic, solenostele, dictyostele, and polycyclic steles. The origin of
This document provides information about Cyanophyta (cyanobacteria) presented by Dr. Sangeeta Das. It discusses the characteristics, distribution, ecology, thallus organization, cell structure, reproduction of cyanobacteria. It specifically focuses on Nostoc, providing details about its systematic position, morphology, and life cycle. Key points include that cyanobacteria are a primitive group of algae found all over the world, they can have unicellular or colonial thalli, reproduce both vegetatively and asexually, and Nostoc forms filaments within a gelatinous sheath and reproduces through fragmentation and akinete formation.
- Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms commonly found in aquatic environments like freshwater, marine, and brackish water. They can be motile or non-motile.
- Algae are classified based on characteristics like cell walls, pigments, morphology, habitat, flagella, and reproduction. Major classifications include 11 classes proposed by Fritsch in 1945.
- Chlorophyta is the division of green algae, mostly freshwater. It contains unicellular and colonial forms like Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Chlorella, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, and Acetabularia.
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
This document describes the classification and characteristics of Chlorophyceae, or green algae. It notes that they have chloroplasts with pyrenoids, store starch, and contain chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyceae are found in fresh, brackish, and salt water. They exist in many forms including unicellular, colonial, filamentous, foliaceous, branched filaments, heterotrichous, siphonaceous, and chara-like forms. Some key orders mentioned are Volvocales, Chlorococcales, Ulotrichales, and Siphonales.
This document discusses the algal phylum Charophyta, specifically the classes within it. Charophyta includes both unicellular and multicellular freshwater algae commonly known as stoneworts. It discusses the key classes - Chlorokybales, Klebsormidiales, Coleochaetales, Charales and Zygnematales - and provides details on their structure, habitat and life cycles. Charophyta algae range in complexity from microscopic to over a meter in length. They reproduce both vegetatively and sexually, with sexual reproduction involving female nucules and male globules that produce zygotes.
Heterothallic species have sexes that reside in different individuals. . The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores, from homothallic ones, which are capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism.
Chlorophyta are a division of green algae that contain about 20,000 species. They are eukaryotic organisms with membrane-bound organelles like chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. Their thalli range from unicellular to multicellular filamentous forms. Reproduction can occur asexually through zoospores or sexually from isogamy to oogamy. They exhibit a variety of life cycles including haplontic and diplohaplontic patterns with alternation of generations. Chlorophyta are an important group of photosynthetic organisms and include many common pond algae.
Algae are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic bodies with thalloid plant body. Thallus may be unicellular to multicellular, microscopic or macroscopic in structure.
This lecture is about classification of algae. In this presentation outline of Fritsch's and Smith's classifications are given. Helpful for B. Sc. students.
This document provides an overview of the general characteristics of pteridophytes. It defines pteridophytes as primitive, vascular land plants with feather-like fronds. It describes their sporophytic plant body, reproduction via spores produced in sporangia, and gametophytic generation. Key aspects covered include occurrence on land and in various habitats, vascular structure, sporangia and sporophyll types, homosporous and heterosporous conditions, antheridia and archegonia, and fertilization leading to a new sporophyte generation dependent initially on the gametophyte.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic group of bacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen essential for aminoacid biosynthesis. Earlier they were called as blue green algae. Now that name is not used because they are not belongs to the algae.
The plant body in algae is always a thallus. It is not differentiated in root, stem and leaves. Algae range in size from minute unicellular plants (less than 1 µ in diameter in some planktons) to very large highly differentiated multicellular forms e.g., some sea-weeds.
Their forms may be colonial (loose or integrated by inter-connections of protoplasmic strands), filamentous (branched or un-branched), septate (branched or un-branched), non-septate or branched, multinucleate siphonaceous tube where the nuclear divisions occur without usual septa formation.
This document discusses the classification and characteristics of different algal groups, including:
- Fritsch classified algae into 11 classes including Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, and Cyanophyceae.
- Algae exhibit diverse morphologies and habitats, from single-celled to complex thalli. They are found in various aquatic and terrestrial environments.
- Algae reproduce both sexually, through processes like isogamy and oogamy, and asexually, through fragmentation, spores, and cell division. Different algal groups display diverse reproductive strategies.
This document provides an overview of algae. It discusses their general characteristics, including their cosmopolitan distribution and range of plant body sizes. It describes three types of reproduction in algae: vegetative, asexual and sexual. Different life cycles are also discussed. The economic importance of algae is summarized, noting their role in industries like agar production and as a primary producer in aquatic habitats.
This document summarizes key details about the fern genus Pteris. It describes the systematic position of Pteris within the plant kingdom, common Indian species, and global occurrence/distribution. The morphology, anatomy, and reproductive structures of the sporophyte (fern plant) are then explained in detail, covering the rhizome, fronds, leaflets, and roots. Key anatomical features include dictyostele stele in the rhizome, vascular bundles with endodermis and pericycle, and hypostomatous leaflets. Reproduction occurs vegetatively from the rhizome as well as sexually from spores.
This document summarizes the Telome Theory, which proposes that all vascular plants evolved from a simple leafless ancestral plant called Rhynia. The theory describes how evolutionary processes like overtopping, reduction, planation, syngenesis, and curvation acted on the telomes (terminal branches) of this ancestor to produce the diversity of plant forms seen today. It provides details on these processes and how they led to the formation of leaves, stems, and other structures. While pioneering, the theory is criticized for not fully explaining the origin of microphyllous leaves in lycophytes and for lacking evidence in its application to some plant groups.
The document describes different types of life cycles in algae. It discusses haplontic, diplontic, haplodiplontic, haplobiontic, and diplobiontic life cycles. The haplontic cycle has a dominant haploid gametophytic phase and a short-lived diploid zygotic phase. The diplontic cycle is the reverse, with a dominant diploid sporophytic phase. The haplodiplontic cycle alternates between haploid and diploid phases. The haplobiontic cycle has three phases - haploid gametophyte, diploid zygote, and haploid carposporophyte. The most complex dip
This document discusses the evolution and development of gymnosperms from earlier plant groups like pteridophytes. Some key points include:
- Gymnosperms are thought to have evolved from pteridophytes, with coditales stock coming directly from pteridophytes. Coditales then gave rise to coniferales and ginkogales.
- Male and female gametophytes of gymnosperms differ from homosporous pteridophytes in being endosporous and reduced. The male gametophyte develops from pollen grains.
- There are different theories on the origin of ovules, including the axial, sui-geneges, and
This document discusses green algae. It notes that the group contains over 20,000 species that contain chlorophyll A and B which gives them their green color. About 90% are freshwater while 10% are marine or terrestrial. They exhibit a wide range of thallus forms from unicellular to filamentous or branched. Green algae store starch and sometimes oils as food reserves and reproduce through vegetative, asexual and sexual means. They are an important food source for animals and humans as they provide vitamins, minerals and carotene.
The document summarizes the types and positions of sori (clusters of sporangia) in ferns. There are three main types of sori: simplices where all sporangia mature simultaneously; gradatae where sporangia mature basipetally from distal to proximal ends; and mixtae which are a mixed aggregation of young and old sporangia. Sori can be marginal, ventral, or borne within structures like sporocarps. Some sori have an indusium or scale for protection, and these can have reniform, circular, funnel-shaped or other morphologies.
The document discusses the evolution of steles, or vascular bundles, in pteridophytes. It describes the basic types as protostelic and siphonostelic. Protostelic steles have central xylem and surrounding phloem with no pith, while siphonostelic steles have a central pith. Specific protostelic types include haplostele, actinostele, and plectostele. Siphonostelic types include cladosiphonic, phyllosiphonic, ectophloic, amphiphloic, solenostele, dictyostele, and polycyclic steles. The origin of
This document provides information about Cyanophyta (cyanobacteria) presented by Dr. Sangeeta Das. It discusses the characteristics, distribution, ecology, thallus organization, cell structure, reproduction of cyanobacteria. It specifically focuses on Nostoc, providing details about its systematic position, morphology, and life cycle. Key points include that cyanobacteria are a primitive group of algae found all over the world, they can have unicellular or colonial thalli, reproduce both vegetatively and asexually, and Nostoc forms filaments within a gelatinous sheath and reproduces through fragmentation and akinete formation.
- Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms commonly found in aquatic environments like freshwater, marine, and brackish water. They can be motile or non-motile.
- Algae are classified based on characteristics like cell walls, pigments, morphology, habitat, flagella, and reproduction. Major classifications include 11 classes proposed by Fritsch in 1945.
- Chlorophyta is the division of green algae, mostly freshwater. It contains unicellular and colonial forms like Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Chlorella, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, and Acetabularia.
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
This document describes the classification and characteristics of Chlorophyceae, or green algae. It notes that they have chloroplasts with pyrenoids, store starch, and contain chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyceae are found in fresh, brackish, and salt water. They exist in many forms including unicellular, colonial, filamentous, foliaceous, branched filaments, heterotrichous, siphonaceous, and chara-like forms. Some key orders mentioned are Volvocales, Chlorococcales, Ulotrichales, and Siphonales.
This document discusses the algal phylum Charophyta, specifically the classes within it. Charophyta includes both unicellular and multicellular freshwater algae commonly known as stoneworts. It discusses the key classes - Chlorokybales, Klebsormidiales, Coleochaetales, Charales and Zygnematales - and provides details on their structure, habitat and life cycles. Charophyta algae range in complexity from microscopic to over a meter in length. They reproduce both vegetatively and sexually, with sexual reproduction involving female nucules and male globules that produce zygotes.
Heterothallic species have sexes that reside in different individuals. . The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores, from homothallic ones, which are capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism.
Chlorophyta are a division of green algae that contain about 20,000 species. They are eukaryotic organisms with membrane-bound organelles like chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. Their thalli range from unicellular to multicellular filamentous forms. Reproduction can occur asexually through zoospores or sexually from isogamy to oogamy. They exhibit a variety of life cycles including haplontic and diplohaplontic patterns with alternation of generations. Chlorophyta are an important group of photosynthetic organisms and include many common pond algae.
Algae are chlorophyll bearing autotrophic bodies with thalloid plant body. Thallus may be unicellular to multicellular, microscopic or macroscopic in structure.
This lecture is about classification of algae. In this presentation outline of Fritsch's and Smith's classifications are given. Helpful for B. Sc. students.
This document provides an overview of the general characteristics of pteridophytes. It defines pteridophytes as primitive, vascular land plants with feather-like fronds. It describes their sporophytic plant body, reproduction via spores produced in sporangia, and gametophytic generation. Key aspects covered include occurrence on land and in various habitats, vascular structure, sporangia and sporophyll types, homosporous and heterosporous conditions, antheridia and archegonia, and fertilization leading to a new sporophyte generation dependent initially on the gametophyte.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic group of bacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen essential for aminoacid biosynthesis. Earlier they were called as blue green algae. Now that name is not used because they are not belongs to the algae.
The plant body in algae is always a thallus. It is not differentiated in root, stem and leaves. Algae range in size from minute unicellular plants (less than 1 µ in diameter in some planktons) to very large highly differentiated multicellular forms e.g., some sea-weeds.
Their forms may be colonial (loose or integrated by inter-connections of protoplasmic strands), filamentous (branched or un-branched), septate (branched or un-branched), non-septate or branched, multinucleate siphonaceous tube where the nuclear divisions occur without usual septa formation.
This document discusses the classification and characteristics of different algal groups, including:
- Fritsch classified algae into 11 classes including Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, and Cyanophyceae.
- Algae exhibit diverse morphologies and habitats, from single-celled to complex thalli. They are found in various aquatic and terrestrial environments.
- Algae reproduce both sexually, through processes like isogamy and oogamy, and asexually, through fragmentation, spores, and cell division. Different algal groups display diverse reproductive strategies.
This document provides an overview of algae. It discusses their general characteristics, including their cosmopolitan distribution and range of plant body sizes. It describes three types of reproduction in algae: vegetative, asexual and sexual. Different life cycles are also discussed. The economic importance of algae is summarized, noting their role in industries like agar production and as a primary producer in aquatic habitats.
Ø Sponges are classified into three classes:
1) The document discusses classification of living organisms from early systems proposed by Aristotle, Linnaeus, Haeckel, Whittaker to the modern five and six kingdom systems.
2) It describes the key features of kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. It also discusses viruses.
3) The plant kingdom is divided into cryptogams and phanerogams. Angiosperms and gymnosperms are described in detail along with distinguishing features of monocots and dicots.
1. The document provides information on the general characteristics, structure, reproduction, and life cycle of the green algae Volvox.
2. Volvox forms spherical or oval colonies composed of hundreds to tens of thousands of cells arranged in a single layer. Each cell contains flagella, chloroplasts and other organelles.
3. Volvox reproduces asexually through the formation of gonidia - reproductive cells that divide to form daughter colonies inside the parent colony. The daughter colonies eventually invert and are released into the water.
The document is an assignment submitted by a student for a Plant Diversity course. It contains 3 questions about algae morphology, anatomy, and life cycles. In response to the first question, the student describes the four major morphological forms of algae as unicellular, filamentous, colonial, or thallose. The student also discusses the diversity of photosynthetic pigments and other distinguishing characteristics among the five major algal divisions.
Introduction of algae and general characteristics
Fossil history of algae
Endosymbiosis Theory
Where are algae abound? Ecology
Algal Blooms
Eutrophication
How are algae similar to higher plants?
How are algae different from higher plants?
Variations in the pigment constitution
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic algae...............
Presentation
BEST OF LUCK
The document discusses the kingdoms used in biological classification systems. It describes:
1) The five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker which divides organisms into the kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on characteristics like cell structure, nutrition, and phylogeny.
2) The key characteristics of each kingdom, including that Monera contains prokaryotic bacteria and archaea, Protista contains unicellular eukaryotes, Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients, Plantae are autotrophic and contain chloroplasts, and Animalia are heterotrophic and motile.
3) Previous classification systems like Aristotle's which
Kingdoms are the second highest rank in biological taxonomy. There are traditionally six kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria. However, some systems use five kingdoms excluding Archaea/Archaebacteria. The document then discusses Aristotle's early two-kingdom system and Linnaeus' two-kingdom system. It introduces Whittaker's influential five kingdom system of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on cell structure, nutrition, and other characteristics. Each kingdom is then described in more detail covering key defining features.
Fritsch classified algae into 11 classes based on their pigments, reserve foods, and modes of reproduction. The classes are Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Dinophyceae, Chloromonodineae, Euglinineae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae, and Myxophyceae. Each class is distinguished by characteristics such as their occurrence, pigments, reserve foods, structures, and modes of reproduction. Fritsch's classification was published in his 1935 book "The Structure and Reproduction of Algae".
The document discusses various systems of classifying algae proposed by different scientists over time. It describes how classification has been based on characteristics like pigmentation, flagellation, cell structure, chloroplast features, and phylogenetic relationships. Several major classification schemes are outlined that divide algae into kingdoms, divisions, classes, and phyla based on these distinguishing traits. There is no universal agreement on a single classification system.
Taxonomy is the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms. It helps formulate effective conservation methods by documenting biodiversity. Taxonomists study major animal groups in an area to understand the environment and inform conservation decisions. Modern taxonomy aims to understand evolutionary histories and relationships between organisms. Ecological niche differentiation and species-specific characteristics in food, habitat, and tolerance to environmental factors allow closely related species to coexist by reducing competition. Ethological traits like song patterns have also been useful in separating similar sympatric bird species. Comparative ethology has improved classification in many taxa by revealing isolating mechanisms.
Diversity of protists by resty samosa ma ed biology Resty Samosa
This document summarizes the diversity of protists. It discusses their general characteristics, including being unicellular, colonial, or multicellular eukaryotes that can reproduce sexually or asexually. It then describes different groups of protists based on their nutrition and habitat, including photosynthetic algae, protozoans, fungus-like protists, and specific phyla within each group. Key details are provided on the structure, reproduction, and ecological roles of major protist taxa.
1. Algae are a diverse group of primitive chlorophyll-containing plants that can be unicellular or multicellular and range in size from microscopic to large seaweeds.
2. They are defined as simple photoautotrophic organisms that primarily inhabit aquatic environments and have plant bodies that lack differentiation into tissues.
3. Algae show a variety of thallus organizations from single-celled to coenocytic to filamentous to parenchymatous and can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
This document provides an overview of a phycology and phycology lab course, including required textbooks, attendance policies, and syllabus details. The course will cover topics like algal taxonomy, growth, losses, and ecology. Students will learn about the diversity of algae including their structures, forms, habitats, and roles in ecosystems.
Protists are unicellular eukaryotic organisms that can be animal-like, plant-like, or fungus-like. They include protozoa such as amoebas and flagellates, as well as algae. Protists live in aquatic and moist environments and can be photosynthetic autotrophs or heterotrophic consumers. They vary greatly in appearance, functions, and impacts on humans and other organisms.
Microbiology - Algae
Algae is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades.
Algae are sometimes considered plants and sometimes considered "protists" (a grab-bag category of generally distantly related organisms that are grouped on the basis of not being animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, or archaeans).
The document provides definitions and key characteristics of algae. It begins by defining algae as chlorophyll-containing primitive plants that can be both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, ranging from unicellular to multicellular organisms. It then discusses definitions of algae provided by various phycologists. The document outlines distinguishing features of algae such as being photoautotrophs, primarily inhabiting aquatic habitats, and showing progressive complexity in reproduction. It also summarizes characteristics of algal cells, thallus organization, pigments, nutrition, and reproduction. The document provides an overview of the classification and features of algae.
Algae have a thalloid plant body without differentiation into true roots, stems, and leaves. They are classified in the division Thallophyta along with fungi and lichens. Algae range from unicellular to multicellular forms and are found in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. They reproduce through vegetative, asexual, and sexual means and typically exhibit an alternation of generations life cycle with haploid and diploid phases. Major groups of algae include cyanophyta, euglenophyta, chrysophyta, pyrrophyta, chlorophyta, rhodophyta, and phaeophyta.
1. Algae are chlorophyll-containing primitive plants that range from unicellular to multicellular organizations and can be both prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
2. They are characterized as photoautotrophs that primarily inhabit aquatic habitats and have plant bodies that lack differentiation into tissue systems.
3. Algae show a wide range of thallus morphologies from single-celled organisms to large seaweeds, and many have autotrophic modes of nutrition and thalloid plant bodies similar to bryophytes.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
Recycling and Disposal on SWM Raymond Einyu pptxRayLetai1
Increasing urbanization, rural–urban migration, rising standards of living, and rapid development associated with population growth have resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities in Nairobi City. It has been noted in other contexts too that increasing population, changing consumption patterns, economic development, changing income, urbanization and industrialization all contribute to the increased generation of waste.
With the increasing urban population in Kenya, which is estimated to be growing at a rate higher than that of the country’s general population, waste generation and management is already a major challenge. The industrialization and urbanization process in the country, dominated by one major city – Nairobi, which has around four times the population of the next largest urban centre (Mombasa) – has witnessed an exponential increase in the generation of solid waste. It is projected that by 2030, about 50 per cent of the Kenyan population will be urban.
Aim:
A healthy, safe, secure and sustainable solid waste management system fit for a world – class city.
Improve and protect the public health of Nairobi residents and visitors.
Ecological health, diversity and productivity and maximize resource recovery through the participatory approach.
Goals:
Build awareness and capacity for source separation as essential components of sustainable waste management.
Build new environmentally sound infrastructure and systems for safe disposal of residual waste and replacing current dumpsites which should be commissioned.
Current solid waste management situation:
The status.
Solid waste generation rate is at 2240 tones / day
collection efficiently is at about 50%.
Actors i.e. city authorities, CBO’s , private firms and self-disposal
Current SWM Situation in Nairobi City:
Solid waste generation – collection – dumping
Good Practices:
• Separation – recycling – marketing.
• Open dumpsite dandora dump site through public education on source separation of waste, of which the situation can be reversed.
• Nairobi is one of the C40 cities in this respect , various actors in the solid waste management space have adopted a variety of technologies to reduce short lived climate pollutants including source separation , recycling , marketing of the recycled products.
• Through the network, it should expect to benefit from expertise of the different actors in the network in terms of applicable technologies and practices in reducing the short-lived climate pollutants.
Good practices:
Despite the dismal collection of solid waste in Nairobi city, there are practices and activities of informal actors (CBOs, CBO-SACCOs and yard shop operators) and other formal industrial actors on solid waste collection, recycling and waste reduction.
Practices and activities of these actor groups are viewed as innovations with the potential to change the way solid waste is handled.
CHALLENGES:
• Resource Allocation.
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.tiwarimanvi3129
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
2. Algae - Definition
The term "algae" covers many different organisms capable of producing oxygen through
photosynthesis (the process of harvesting light energy from the sun to generate carbohydrates). These
organisms are not necessarily closely related. However, certain features unite them, while distinguishing
them from the other major group of photosynthetic organisms: the land plants.
History of phycology
The history of phycology is the history of the scientific study of algae. The classification of plants
suffered many changes since Theophrastus (372–287 B.C.) and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) grouped them
as "trees", "shrubs" and "herbs".
Little is known of botany during the middle ages — it was the Dark Ages of botany.
The development of the study of phycology runs in a pattern comparable with, and parallel to, other
biological fields but at a different rate. After the invention of the printing-press in the 15th century
(with the publication of the first printed book: Gutenberg's Bible of 1488) education enabled people to
read and knowledge to spread.
3. General characteristics
Habitat
The majority of algae live in aquatic habitats . Yet, the word "aquatic" is almost limited in its ability to
encompass the diversity of these habitats. These organisms can thrive in freshwater lakes or in saltwater
oceans. They can also endure a range of temperatures, oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations, acidity and
turbidity.
For example, giant kelp are found more than 200 meters below the polar ice sheets, according to "Algae,"
while the unicellular green algal species Dunaliella salina is found in very salty, or hypersaline, environments
such as the Dead Sea. Free-floating, mostly unicellular algae that live within illuminated regions of water are
known as planktonic. Those that adhere to surfaces are known as benthic algae. Such algae grow on mud, stones,
other algae and plants, or animals, according to "Algae.“
Algae are also able to survive on land. Some unexpected places where they grow are tree trunks, animal fur,
snow banks, hot springs (according to "Algae") and in soil, including desert crusts
4. Mostly, algae live independently in their various growth forms (single cells, colonies, etc.), but they can also form
symbiotic relationships with a variety of non-photosynthetic organisms including ciliates, sponges, mollusks and
fungi (as lichens). One of the benefits of such relationships is that they enable algae to broaden the horizons of their
habitats.
Nutrition
As a general rule, algae are capable of photosynthesis and produce their own nourishment by using light energy
from the sun and carbon dioxide in order to generate carbohydrates and oxygen. In other words, most algae are
autotrophs or more specifically, photoautotrophs (reflecting their use of light energy to generate nutrients).
However, there exist certain algal species that need to obtain their nutrition solely from outside sources; that is, they
are heterotrophic. Such species apply a variety of heterotrophic strategies to acquire nutrients from organic
materials (carbon containing compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats). Osmotrophy is the absorption of
dissolved substances, and phagotrophy involves engulfing bacteria or other such prey. Other algae, known as
auxotrophs, need to only acquire essential vitamins such as the B12complex or fatty acids (according to "Algae").
5. According to the authors of "Algae," it is widely accepted that the nutritional strategies of algae exist on a spectrum
combining photoautotrophy and heterotrophy. This ability is known as mixotrophy.
Reproduction
Algae are capable of reproducing through asexual or vegetative methods and via sexual reproduction.
According to the authors of "Algae," asexual reproduction involves the production of a motile spore, while vegetative
methods include simple cell division (mitosis) to produce identical offspring and the fragmentation of a colony. Sexual
reproduction involves the union of gametes (produced individually in each parent through (meiosis).
Classification of Algae
Classification Proposed by F. E. Fritsch (1935)
F. E. Fritsch (1935), also known as Father of Phycology, proposed the most acceptable and comprehensive algal classification.
Fritsch published two volumes of “Structure and Reproduction of the Algae”. His classification is based on different
characteristics as pigmentation, chemical nature of reserve food material, flagellar arrangement (kind, number and point of
insertion), presence or absence of organized nucleus in cell and mode of reproduction. He emphasized the account of living
forms of algae as compared to fossil forms, all of which have been grouped in one class. He classified algae into 11 classes.
6. Classification of Algae
The characteristics features of different classes as proposed by Fritsch are:
Class I: Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Aquatic (mostly freshwater and few are marine) as well as
terrestrial.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a and b; Carotenoids and Xanthophylls.
(c) Pyrenoids: Present.
(d) Reserve food material: Starch.
(e) Cell wall: Cellulosic.
(f) Structure: Unicellular motile to multicellular, heterotrichous filamentous.
(g) Flagella: Present, equal length (isokont), situated anteriorly, one whiplash and
another one is tinsel.
(h) Reproduction: Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual reproduction (isogamous,
anisogamous and oogamous).
Orders (9): 1. Volvocales 2. Chlorococcales 3. Ulotrichales
4. Cladophorales 5. Chaetophorales 6. Oedogoniales 7. Conjugales
8. Sipohonales 9. Charales
7. Class II: Xanthophyceae (Yellow: Green)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly freshwater and a few are marine.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a, e, β carotene and xanthophylls.
(c) Pyrenoids: Absent.
(d) Reserve food material: Oil.
(e) Cell wall: Rich in pectic compounds and composed of two equal pieces overlapping
at the edges. Flagella unequal.
(f) Structure: Unicellular motile to simple fi lamentous.
(g) Flagella: Present, two unequal, situated anteriorly. Longer one tinsel and shorter
one whiplash.
(h) Reproduction: Vegetative, Asexual and Sexual (Mainly Isogamous, Anisogamy
is rare, Oogamous in Vaucheria).
Orders (4): 1. Heterochloridales 2. Heterococcales 3. Heterotrichales
4. Heterosiphonales
8. Class III: Chrysophyceae (Orange Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly fresh water a few are marine.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a, Dominant pigment is Phycocrysin.
(c) Reserve food material: Leucosin, fats, Chrysolaminarin.
(d) Cell wall: Silicifi ed or Calcifi ed, Cellulose absent.
(e) Structure: Unicellular motile to branched fi lamentous.
(f) Flagella: Present, Two in number, equal or may be unequal, inserted
anteriorly.
(g) Reproduction: Vegetative and Sexual (normally absent, but if present
isogamous).
Orders (3): 1. Chrysomonadales 2. Chrysophaerales 3. Chrysotrichales
9. Class IV: Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms/Yellow or Golden
Brown Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Cosmopolitan in nature, found everywhere in fresh water, marine
water, soil and terrestrial habitats.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll c, β carotene, Fucoxanthin, Diatoxanthin, Didinoxanthin.
(c) Pyrenoids: Present.
(d) Reserve food material: Fats, Volutin.
(e) Cell wall: Composed of silica as well as pectic substances. Divided in two
halves outer half is hydrated silica and inner half is composed of pectic
substances.
(f) Structure: Unicellular or Colonial.
(g) Flagella: Single, pantonematic in motile stages.
(h) Reproduction: Cell division and auxospore formation.
Orders (2): 1. Centrales 2. Pennales
10. Class V: Cryptophyceae (Nearly Brown)
(a) Occurrence: Found in both freshwater and marine waters.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a, c, Xanthophylls – diatoxanthin, phycocyanin and
phycoerythrin.
(c) Pyrenoids: Pyrenoid like bodies present but independent of chromatophores.
(d) Reserve food material: Starch and/or oil.
(e) Cell wall: Absent
(f) Structure: Unicellular with anterior groove or pocket.
(g) Flagella: Biflagellate, both flagella apical or lateral, hairy, may be equal or
unequal.
(h) Reproduction: Mostly binary fission, Sexual reproduction is rare but only of
isogamous type.
Orders (2): 1. Cryptomonadales 2. Cryptococcales
11. Class VI: Dinophyceae (Dark Yellow or Brown)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly marine and a few are freshwater forms.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a, c 2, β carotene, peridinin, neoperidinin, dominant pigments
are xanthophylls.
(c) Chromatophores: Present, Discoid.
(d) Reserve food material: Starch and Fat.
(e) Cell wall: Cellulosic.
(f) Structure: Mostly unicellular, branched fi lamentous and motile.
(g) Flagella: Present, two, equal.
(h) Reproduction: Sexual reproduction isogamous type (rare).
Orders (6): 1. Desmomonadales 2. Thecatales 3. Dinophysiales
4. Dinofl agellata 5. Dinococcales 6. Dinotrichales
Class VII: Chloromonadinae (Bright Green)
(a) Occurrence: Fresh water forms.
(b) Pigments: Xanthophylls in excess.
(c) Pyrenoids: Absent
(d) Reserve food material: Fat and Oil
(e) Cell wall: Absent.
(f) Structure: Motile unicells.
(g) Flagella: Two, Equal.
(h) Reproduction: By cell division, Sexual reproduction absent.
Orders (1): 1. Chloromonadales
12. Class VIII: Euglenophyceae
(a) Occurrence: Freshwater forms are known only.
(b) Pigments: Chlorophyll a, b, β carotene, astaxanthin,
antheraxanthin, diadinoxanthin,
neoxanthin.
(c) Pyrenoids: Pyrenoid like bodies are present in some.
(d) Reserve food material: Paramylon and some
polysaccharides.
(e) Cell wall: Proteinaceous.
(f) Structure: Unicellular.
(g) Flagella: Present (one or two).
(h) Reproduction: By cell division, Sexual reproduction if
present is of isogamous
type.
P. Baweja and D. Sahoo
The class has been divided into three families:
1. Euglenaceae 2. Astasiaceae 3. Peranemaceae
Class IX: Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly marine.
(b) Pigments: Fucoxanthin is dominant, Chlorophyll a, c and
carotene.
(c) Pyrenoids: Stalked pyrenoids present outside the chloroplast
envelope.
(d) Reserve food material: Laminarin, mannitol and fats.
(e) Cell wall: Cellulose, alginic acid and fucinic acid.
(f) Structure: Microscopic to branched, fi lamentous
macroscopic parenchymatous
plants.
(g) Flagella: Zoospores fl agellated, fl agella unequal, one is
tinsel type.
(h) Reproduction: Sexual reproduction (isogamous,
anisogamous and oogamous).
Orders (9):
1. Ectocarpales 2. Tilopteridales 3. Cutariales 4. Sporochnales
5. Desmarestiales 6. Laminariales 7. Sphacelariales
8. Dictyotales 9. Fucales
13. Class X: Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly marine.
(b) Pigments: r- phycoerythrin and r – phycocyanin, chlorophyll
a, d, carotene and
xanthophylls.
(c) Pyrenoids: Chromatophores present and pyrenoid like bodies
are present in
lower forms.
(d) Reserve food material: Floridean starch.
(e) Cell wall: Outer pectic and inner cellulosic.
(f) Structure: Multicellular (uniaxial or multiaxial).
(g) Flagella: Absent (cell non – motile).
(h) Reproduction: Sexual and oogamous type.
Orders (7):
1. Bangiales 2. Nemalionales 3. Gelidiales 4. Cryptonemiales
5. Gigartinales 6. Rhodymeniales 7. Ceramiales
14. Class XI: Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae, Blue Green Algae)
(a) Occurrence: Mostly fresh water.
(b) Pigments: c – phycocyanin, chlorophyll a, β carotene and c- phycoerythrin.
(c) Pyrenoids: Absent.
(d) Reserve food material: Myxophycean starch and cyanophycean granules
(proteins).
(e) Cell wall: Mucopeptides, amino acids, fatty acids and carbohydrates.
(f) Structure: Unicellular or Multicellular. Cells are prokaryotic in nature.
(g) Flagella: Absent (cell non – motile).
(h) Reproduction: Vegetative and asexual, sexual reproduction absent (genetic
recombination is reported in some members)
Orders (5):
1. Chroococcales 2. Chamaesiphonales 3. Pleurocapsales
4. Nostocales 5. Stigonemales
Some important suggestions proposed by Fritsch in his classifi cation can be
summarized as below :
15. 1. According to Fritsch, algae as a group must be considered as Division, therefore
it cannot be further divided into “phyta” and he thus classifi ed algae in 11 classes.
2. Class Conjugatae of Pascher’s classifi cation should be treated as an order (=
conjugates) of class Chlorophyceae.
3. Division Charophyta should be treated only as an order Charales
in class Chlorophyceae.
4. Euglenophyta was further separated into two separate classes i.e. Euglenineae
and Chlromonadineae.
5. Inclusion of Xanthophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Chrysophyceae were separated
because of dissimilarities between them.
16. Classification Proposed by G. M. Smith ( 1955 )
G.M. Smith supported the classification proposed by Pascher (1914 , 1931 ) and proposed
a new classification with certain modifications. He divided algae into divisions and further into classes.
The seven divisions of algae as proposed are:
1. Chlorophyta Chlorophyceae e.g. Volvox Charophyceae e.g. Chara
2. Euglenophyta Euglenophyceae e.g. Euglena
3. Pyrrophyta Desmophyceae e.g. Desmarestia Dinophyceae e.g. Dinophysis P. Baweja and D. Sahoo
4. Chrysophyta Chrysophyceae e.g. Chromolina Xanthophyceae e.g. Botrydium Bacillariophyceae e.g.
Pinnularia
5. Phaeophyta Isogenerateae e.g. Ectocarpus Heterogenerateae e.g. Mynomena Cyclosporeae e.g.
Sargassum
6. Cyanophyta Myxophyceae e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena
7. Rhodophyta Rhodophyceae e.g. Polysiphonia, Gracilaria , Batrachospermum
Smith also recognized algae of uncertain systematic position and placed them
under chloromonadales and cryptophyceae.
17. Salient features of prochlorophyta
Prochlorophyta are a photosynthetic prokaryote members of the phytoplankton group Picoplankton. These
oligotrophic organisms are abundant in nutrient-poor tropical waters and use a unique photosynthetic
pigment, divinyl-chlorophyll, to absorb light and acquire energy.
These organisms lack red and blue Phycobilin pigments and have staked thylakoids, both of which make
them different from Cyanophyta. Prochlorophyta were initially discovered in 1975 near the Great Barrier
Reef and off the coast of Mexico. The following year, Ralph A. Lewin, of the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, assigned them as a new algal sub-class. Prochlorophytes are very small microbes generally
between 0.2 and 2 µm (Photosynthetic picoplankton).
They morphologically resemble Cyanobacteria, Members of Prochlorophyta have been found as coccoid
(spherical) shapes, like Prochlorococcus, and as filaments, like Prochlorothrix.
In addition to Prochlorophyta, other phytoplankton that lack Phycobilin pigments were later found in
freshwater lakes in the Netherlands, by Tineke Burger-Wiersma. These organisms were termed
Prochlorothrix.
18. Prochloron (a marine symbiont) and Prochlorothrix (from freshwater plankton) contain
chlorophylls a and b; Prochlorococcus (common in marine picoplankton) contains
divinyl-chlorophylls a and b. In 1986, Prochlorococcus was discovered by Sallie W.
Chisholm and his colleagues.
These organisms might be responsible for a significant portion of the global primary
production. Like cyanophytes they are all clearly photosynthetic prokaryotes, but since
they contain no blue or red bilin pigment they were assigned to a new algal subclass, the
Prochlorophyta.
However, since their possible phylogenetic relationships to ancestral green-plant
chloroplasts have not received support from molecular biology, it now seems expedient to
consider them as aberrant cyanophytes.
19. Morphology
Prochlorophytes are very small microbes generally between 0.2 and 2 µm (photosynthetic
picoplankton). They morphologically resemble Cyanobacteria.
Members of Prochlorophyta have been found as coccoid (spherical) (Coccus) shaped, as in
Prochlorococcus, and as filaments, as in Prochlorothrix. Their association with ascidians from
tropical Pacific shores have been reported by various biologists. Such cells found associated with
surfaces of Didemnum colonies on the Pacific coast of Mexico, have been shown by electron
microscopy to be prokaryotic, which suggests that they are cyanophytes, that is, blue-green algae.
Although all known blue-green algae (other than a few apochlorotic types) contain phycoerythrin,
phycocyanin, or both, however, these ascidian symbionts are apple green and contain no
detectable bilin pigments. Furthermore, like the eukaryotic algae in the divisions Chlorophyta and
Euglenophyta, they contain two chlorophyll components, separable by chromatography and
provisionally identifiable as chlorophylls a and b, whereas no cyanophytes are known to contain
chlorophyll b.
20. The prochlorophytes are a diverse group of photosynthetic prokaryotes that fall within the
cyanobacterial lineage, yet lack phycobilisomes as light harvesting structures.
Instead, the prochlorophytes have a light-harvesting apparatus composed of the higher plant pigments
chlorophylls a and b. This review discusses the evolutionary relationships among these bacteria, with
focus on the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus.
This analysis yields a consensus from studies both on Prochloron sp. and Prochlorothrix hollandica as to
how the thylakoid membrane is organized.
The algal internal structure, resembling that of blue-green algae, consists of two definite zones bounded
by a thin (30–50 nm), multilayered cell wall. The outer zone is occupied by the photosynthetic lamellae
and the cytoplasm.
The central zone is electron-transparent and sometimes contains lamellae of unknown nature. However,
unlike single non-appressed thylakoids of the Cyanophyta, the algal photosynthetic lamellae are
composed of two-appressed thylakoids. The central zone undergoes binary division before cytokinesis.
21. Salient features of Chlorophyta
The class Chlorophyceae is commonly called as green algae. Chlorophyceae is very large group of algae and is
represented by about 429 genera and 6500 species. Chlorophyceae are mainly fresh water algae (about 90
percent species are fresh water and 10 percent marine). Fresh water forms are common in ponds, pools, lakes,
ditches, water tanks, and in river and canals.
Majority of Volvocales, Chlorococcales are planktonic forms.
Many Chaetophorales e.g., Coleochaete, Protococcus. Trentepohlia are epiphytic algae.
Many species of Cladophora and Characium are epizoic algae.
Some green algae like Trebouxia, Chlorella form symbiotic association ship with animals like Zoo chlorella and
Hydra.
Some green algae form symbiotic association with fungi to form lichens.
Cephaleuros is parasitic algae on leaves of tea, coffee, piper and magnolia plants. Cephaleuros causes red rust of
tea.
Chlamydomonas nivalis causes red snow and Chlamydomanas yellowstonensis causes green snow. Some
Chlamydomonas species are thermophilic.
22. Important Features:
(i) The cells are eukaryotic and contain mitochondria, Golgi bodies, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum and
ribosomes.
(ii) The cell wall is made of two layers, the inner layer mainly consisting of cellulose and the outer layer
consisting of pectic substances.
(iii) The chloroplasts are well organized, the main pigments are chlorophyll a and b, the other pigments are
α and β carotene and xanthophyll’s.
(iv) The shape of the chloroplast is variable. It may be cup shaped eg. Chlamydomonas, grodle shaped e.g.,
Ulothrix, reticulate e.g., chladophora, stella e.g., zygonema, spiral e.g., spirogyra, Discoid e.g., chara or
parietal e.g., Drapalnaldiopsis
(v) The reserved food is in the form of starch and its formation is associated with pyrenoids
(vi) The motile reproductive structures i.e., zoospores and gametes have 2,4 flagella which can be apical,
subapical, equal in size and acronemotic type.
(vii) The sexual reporoduction can be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous
23. Salient features of Cyanophyta
Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae is a phylum of bacteria that gets energy through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are
now one of the largest and most important group of bacteria on earth.
Cyanobacteria are found in almost all habitats of ocean to fresh water, stone of deep purple, sea marsh, and to the
ground. They can be single-celled or colonize. Colonies can form filaments or sheets. Cyanobacteria include
unicellular, colony and colony filament. beberapa form filaments can differentiate into three different cells.
Vegetative cells are normal, photosynthetic cells in a good environment, and the type of thick-walled heteroksit
containing enzyme nitroginase.
Most Cyanobacteria are found diair bargaining, while others stay dilautan, there is ground moisture, moisturize even
the rocks in the desert.
Characteristics General of Cyanophyta:
1. Type of prokaryotic cells (similar to the bacteria)
2. There is a form of unicellular (single-celled), there are colonies and there is also a form of filaments.
3. Has the pigment chlorophyll, the pigment fikobilin karotinoid and consisting of phycocyanin (blue), and fikoeritin
(red). Combined these pigments create a bluish green color.
24. 4. Chlorophyll is not contained within the chloroplasts, but scattered throughout the protoplasm.
5. Characteristically autotroph because of chlorophyll.
6. The body structure is simple, the cell walls contain pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose are sometimes
in the form of mucus.
7. At the edge of the plasma contained chlorophyll dye, Carotene and two kinds of water-soluble
kromoprotein namely: phycocyanin fikoeritrin blue and red.
8. In the middle of the cell there is a section which is colorless containing DNA and RNA.
9. There is a reserve of glycogen as a food substance and there beside the granules sianofisin (lipo-
protein) that is located at the periphery and Volutin whose function remains unclear.
10. Green algae blue shaped filaments can also form a thick-walled spores that are resistant to hot and dry
and can menfiksasi or bind N (nitrogen) is heteroksit.
25. Salient features of Charophyta
Charophyta is a taxonomic group (a phylum) comprised of green algae that live predominantly
in freshwater habitats. Members of this phylum (called charophytes) used to be included in the phylum
Chlorophyta (chlorophytes). Both charophytes and chlorophytes are greenish in colour, photosynthetic,
and eukaryotic.
These basic features are due to the chlorophyll (green pigments) that are abundant in their thylakoids.
Similar to chlorophytes, the charophytes have chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Carotenoids are also
present but they are relatively few. Both chlorophytes and charophytes store their carbohydrates as
starch. One of the main differences between charophytes and chlorophytes is the use of a
phragmoplast that serves as a scaffold for cell plate assembly and later on during the formation of a
new cell wall during cell devision. Charophytes also have enzymes (e.g. class I aldolase, Cu/Zn
superoxide dismutase, glycolate oxidase, and flagellar peroxidase) not found in chlorophytes.
Charophytes are postulated to be the early ancestors of embryophytes (land plants). Embryophytes are
more closely related to the charophytes since their structures are more comparable than those of the
chlorophytes.
26. General characteristics
The charophytes, together with the chlorophytes, make up the green algae. As part of this algal group, the
charophytes are greenish in colour. This is due to the abundant chlorophyll (green pigment) inside their cell. Their
cell wall is chiefly made up of cellulose. They store their food reserves as starch.
Sub-groups
The phylum Charophyta includes the following classes:
Klebsormidiophyceae
Phragmoplastophyta
Charophyceae
Coleochaetophyceae
Mesotaeniaceae
Zygnematophyceae
The Embryophyta is also included though cladistically.
27. Salient features of Xanthophyta
1. Members of Xanthophyceae are commonly fresh water (Tribonema) and most of them are free floating. [Few
members are found to grow on mud (Botrydium) and also on walls or tree trunks (Characiopsis, Ophiocytium etc.). A
few members like Halosphaera are marine.
2. Plant body is unicellular (Heterochloris) or multicellular. [The multicellular bodies also exhibit various forms like
palmelloid (Chlorogloea), dendroid (Mischococcus), coccoid (Chlorobotrys), rhizopodial (Stipitococcus), filamentous
(Heterococcus) and siphona- ceous (Botrydium).
3. The cellwall is often absent but when its present it contains more pectic compounds than the members of
chlorophyceae. Occasionally cellulose is also present
4. Usually two flagella present but rarely one. They are unequal and inserted at the anterior end.
5. Chromotophores are discoid in shape and numerous in each cell
6. The pyrenoids are absent or rarely present. The pyrenoids are yellow green in colour. The photosynthetic pigments are
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll e (very little), P-Carotene, xanthophyll. The chief xanthophyll is diadinoxanthin.
7. The reserve food is oil, lipid and lucosin. Starch is not formed.
28. Salient features of Phaeophyta
The salient features of Phaeophyceae members:
1. Phaeophyceae commonly called as Brown algae.
2. Majority are marine habitats. Pleurocladia is a fresh water form.
3. Thallus may be filamentous, frond – like or giant kelps.
4. Thallus is differentiated into photosynthetic part-frond, stalk – like structure – stipe and a holdfast for attachment.
5. Chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘c’ , carotenoids and Xanthophylls are photosynthetic pigments. 6. A golden brown fucoxanthin
pigment gives olive green to brown colour.
7. Mannitol and Laminarin starch is the storage material.
8. Motile spores with unequal flagella (one whiplash and one tinsel) are present.
9. Oogamous is the major type of sexual reproduction. Isogamy is also seen.
10. Alternation of generation is seen.
Example: Sargassum, Fucus, Laminaria and Dictyota.
29. Salient features of Rhodophyta
1. Rhodophyceae commonly called as red algae.
2. Mostly marine habitats.
3. The thallus is multicellular, macroscopic, and may be filamentous, ribbon – like etc.
4. Chlorophyll ‘a’ , r-phycoerythrin and rphycocyanin are photosynthetic pigments.
5. Asexual reproduction is by means of monospores, neutral spores and tetraspores.
6. Floridean starch is the storage material
7. Sexual reproduction in oogamous.
8. Male sex organ is spermatangium producing spermatium.
9. Female sex organ is carpogonium.
10. Spermatium is carried by water and fuses with egg forming zygote.
11. Zygote undergoes meiosis forming carpospores.
12. Alternation of generation is seen. Example: Ceramium, Gelidium and Gigartina.
30. Reference
The Algae World, Editors: Dinabandhu Sahoo,Joseph Seckbatch, Springer
https://www.livescience.com/54979-what-are-algae.html
http://hdjaincollege.org/fileupload/uploads/60d6b1ee800e120210626044950M.Sc.%20Botany%20SEM%20I%20MBOTCC%201%
20Prochlorophytes.pdf
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/algae/life-cycle-algae/chlorophyta-class-important-features-and-orders/21009
Syamsuri, Istamar. 2007. Biologi. Jakarta : Erlangga
Indah, N. 2007, Taksonomi Tumbuhan Tingkat Rendah, Jember: IKIP PGRI Jember.
Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. (1995). Algae An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Leliaert, F., Smith, D.R., Moreau, H., Herron, M.D., Verbruggen, H., Delwiche, C.F. & De Clerck, O. (2012).
“Phylogeny and molecular evolution of the green algae” (PDF). Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 31: 1–46.
The NCBI taxonomy database. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/taxonomy.
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/charophyta