The document discusses interprocess communication and distributed systems, noting that distributed systems rely on defined communication protocols like interprocess communication using message passing over networks. It also covers topics like overhead in communication systems, different data storage and transfer formats between systems like XML, and Java object serialization for complex data transfer. Effective communication protocols aim to minimize overhead while maximizing throughput.

1. Interprocess Communication
Chapter 4 Distributed Systems,
Concepts and Design

2. Distributed Systems
• “A distributed system is a collection of
independent computers that appear to
its users as a single system.”
(Tanenbaum)
• Distributed systems are therefore built
around communication. Actually, it
could be argued that computers are
used more as communication devices
than computational devices.

3. Communications
• Because communications are critical to
distributed systems, communications
protocols tend to be well defined. A key form
of communications is interprocess
communications, based on low-level message
passing over the network.
• Protocols are sets of rules that must be
followed to enable standardized
communications.

4. Overhead
• Overhead is a financial term that refers to indirect
costs in a business. For example, a merchant cannot
sell you a product for the price that he pays because
he has additional costs beyond buying the
merchandise such as rent and staff wages. Overhead
always puts pressure on profits, so it must be kept to
a minimum. Because corporations treat information
technology as overhead, overhead is a major concern
in this course. Activities that support work rather
than doing work in IT are also costs and are referred
to as overhead.

5. Communications Overhead
• In most communication systems, overhead is a key
concern. Overhead activities are background
operations that do not directly involve sending and
receiving messages. Headers and footers involve
sending extra information, so they are overhead. In
a phone system, overhead includes time spent setting
up and tearing down the circuit path over which a
phone call can take place. TCP is like a phone call,
since it has to set up, tear down, and manage
operations in addition to “talk time.”

6. Headers and trailers
• Each level is packaged as data to other
levels with a header attached.
Headers Trailer
Message
Note that short messages are mostly overhead while long messages
involve a much higher proportion of actual work.

7. Normal Operation of TCP
Figure 2-4a in Tanenbaum et al
SYN Steps 4 and 7 do the
1
SYN, ACK(SYN) communication. All
2
ACK(SYN) of the rest of the TCP
3
request messages are
4
FIN overhead operations.
5
ACK(req+FIN) 6 KEY:
answer
7 SYNchronize
FIN ACKnowledge
8
ACK(FIN)
9 FINished

8. Transactional TCP
Figure 2-4b in Tanenbaum et al
SYN, request, FIN
1 By sending the
SYN, ACK(FIN), answer, FIN 2 message and response
ACK(FIN)
3 with the overhead
signals, transactional
TCP can speed up
throughput and
reduce overhead time
delays.

9. Classroom Exercise
• Calculate the percentage improvement in
throughput of Transactional TCP (sending 3
messages instead of 9) under the following
assumptions:
• 1) Short packets, dominated by latency of 10 ms.
• 2) Ethernet LAN, 10 ms latency, 10Mbps bandwidth,
maximum Ethernet packet size of 1500 bytes.
• 3) TCP/IP WAN, 20 ms latency, 500 Mbps bandwidth,
maximum TCP packet size of 64KB. (Latency assumes
multiple hops between routers)
• Thought exercise: When is Transactional TCP
worthwhile?

10. Ethernet Jumbo Frames
• Ethernet Jumbo Frames of 9KB are possible
if supported end to end. A 9KB Ethernet
frame can hold an 8 KB TCP/IP datagram
(NFS standard) plus packet overhead.
Ethernet cannot use 64KB packets because
it uses CRC for error correction, and CRC
has an upper limit of 12KB, which is hard
to change. [P. Dykstra]

11. Upper Bound of TCP
• Dykstra’s article (see References) is a good discussion
of frame (packet, datagram) size.
• Dykstra quotes an article by Matt Mathis et al. which
sets this limit on TCP WAN performance:
• Throughput <= ~0.7 * MSS / (rtt * sqrt(packet_loss))
• MSS – Max Segment Size = Packet size minus TCP
headers
• rtt = Round trip time (about 40 ms NYC – LA)
• packet_loss = percentage of packets lost (wide
variation, 0.1 % is a typical value.

12. Importance of Mathis Formula
• If you examine the formula:
• Throughput <= ~0.7 * MSS / (rtt * sqrt(packet_loss))
• You will see that throughput is dominated by the
maximum segment size, since the error rate has an
inverse square effect on performance. In general,
doubling the MSS doubles performance.
• Remember that maximum segment size, packet size,
datagram size and frame size all mean
approximately the same thing.

13. Storing Data
• Data stored in digital format is composed of binary
sequences that have a combination of logical and
arbitrary meanings attached to them. Most binary
formats for numbers are logical, although there are
a lot of differences in storage sizes and handling
negative numbers and exponents. While it is
somewhat logical that 0101 represents 5 as a short
integer, it is somewhat less logical that 01000001
represents A and 01100001represents a in the ASCII
code or that 00011000 represents A and 00010100
represents a in the EBCDIC code.

14. Numeric formats
• Some computers store data in memory in different
ways, so that a value of 11110000 might be stored
so that the 1111 is in the lowest memory location
on one computer and the 0000 on another. The
same binary integer would have different meanings
as an unsigned integer or a signed integer with
two’s complement notation. There are different
formats for storing floating point numbers.
Computers have different register sizes, making
default word sizes of 8, 16, 32, 36 or 64 bits most
practical in different CPUs.

15. Transferring Data
• With different coding schemes, memory storage
order, word sizes and numeric formats, generic
attempts to transfer information between systems
must carefully define formats for the transferred
data and have ways to convert data to the data
transfer format and back to another format. Such a
scheme must understand the format at both ends of
the transaction. The intermediate format is called an
External Data Representation (XDR), and a set of
commands to accomplish that is called an Interface
Definition Language (IDL).

16. External Data Representation
• There are three different common approaches
to XDR:
• CORBA’s common data representation, which
can be used by a variety of languages.
• Java’s object serialization, which can even
pass complex objects across a network, but is
limited to Java only.
• Extensible Markup Language (XML), which
can represent even structured data as ASCII
text.

17. Marshalling and
Unmarshalling
• Converting information to a network
transportable form (XDR) following
the specifications of an IDL is called
marshalling. Converting it back to an
application readable format is called
unmarshalling.

18. Java Object Serialization
• Serialization transforms an object into a sequence of
bytes. This allows objects to be saved to files or
transferred across a network, and is a key feature of
Java. Since objects can have attributes that are also
objects, and those objects can have object attributes,
serialization allows a very complex structure to be
transferred across a network or stored in a file.
• Classes that need to be stored in files or transferred
over a network should implement the
java.io.serializable interface.

19. Reflection
• Java supports reflection—the ability to
enquire about the properties of a class,
including the names and types of its instance
variables. Classes can be created from their
names, and a constructor with specified
arguments can create a class. Reflection
makes serialization and deserialization
possible and allows a class to be instantiated
by a Java Virtual Machine after transfer across
a network.

20. The Document is the Object
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
Describes the structure of a document
Defines new tags
Specifies metadata that lets programs discover
document structure
 DOM (Document Object Model)
Allows programmatic access to XML
structure and content of XML documents
 XSL (eXtensible Style Language)
The XML version of Style sheets

21. What is XML?
• XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language.
• XML specification defines a syntax and
document organization for data, represented by
tag/value pairs.
• XML Elements have data surrounded by
matching start and end tags.
• XML Attributes are optional in some start tags
and have an identifier with an = sign.
• There is a well defined syntax that can be
parsed.

22. XML Namespaces
• An XML namespace is a collection of names,
identified by a URI reference, which are used in
XML documents as element types and attribute
names. XML namespaces have internal structure
and are not, mathematically speaking, sets.
• The file that identifies the namespace can be
specified as an attribute called xmlns like this:
xmlns:pers = “http://www.cdk4.net/person
• See http://www.w3.org/XML/ for specifications.

23. XML Schemas
• An XML Schema defines the elements
and attributes that can be used in a
document, how they can be nested, the
order and number of the elements, and
whether an element is empty or can
include text. Default values and types
are defined. An example is Coulouris
figure 4.12 shown on the next slide.

24. Figure 4.12 An XML schema
for the Person structure
<xsd:schema xmlns:xsd = URL of XML schema definitions >
<xsd:element name= "person" type ="personType" />
<xsd:complexType name="personType">
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name = "name" type="xs:string"/>
<xsd:element name = "place" type="xs:string"/>
<xsd:element name = "year"
type="xs:positiveInteger"/>
</xsd:sequence>
<xsd:attribute name= "id" type = "xs:positiveInteger"/>
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:schema>

25. XML: Structured Data in a
Text File
 Spreadsheets, address books,
configuration parameters, financial
transactions, product catalogs…
 XML defines a set of rules and
conventions for designing text formats for
such data
 Easy to generate and read by computer
 Extensible

26. Role of XML
• Applications built on different
technologies can communicate via XML.
• New integration tools and integration
servers capitalize on emergence of XML as
an integration technology.
• Many .NET and J2EE technologies, such as
SOAP, XML Web Services, JXTA, XML-RPC,
and EJB use or are based on XML.

27. Client/Server Communication
• Communication in Client/Server
systems uses a variety of well specified
request/reply mechanisms with send
and receive protocols defined by TCP,
RPC, Java RMI, CORBA and other
formats.

28. Figure 4.14
Request-reply communication
Client Server
Request
doOperation
message getRequest
select object
(wait) execute
Reply method
message sendReply
(continuation)

29. Message Oriented
Communication
• Remote procedure calls and remote object
invocation are not always sufficient or
appropriate for all communications in
distributed systems. They tend to be
optimized for immediate connections
between two systems, and may be inadequate
for operations that persist over time or
involve multiple connections requiring
synchronization. For this, message oriented
protocols such as mail protocols have been
developed.

30. Persistent Communication
• In persistent communication, a
message may be stored until it can be
passed on to a recipient. Compare this
to the distinction between a simple
telephone and an answering machine.
Without the answering machine, you
must be present when the phone rings
to get a message.

31. Message Oriented
Middleware
• In MOM, applications communicate by inserting
messages in specific queues. As the queues are
processed, messages are forwarded to other
computers. There may be several intermediates.
At the destination queue, individual messages may
be accepted and acted upon, and responses sent
back through the system. Only passing to the
receiver’s queue is guaranteed by the system.
Accepting, reading or acting upon the message is
up to the receiver.

32. MOM
• Messages can contain any data, but must be
properly addressed. Usually, there is a systemwide
unique name for the receiving queue. This allows a
very simple interface. Queues are managed by
queue managers, which may also act as relays to
forward messages to other queues. Messages of
different types can be interconnected by
specialized applications called message brokers,
which apply a set of rules to convert a message to
a different type.

33. IBM’s MQ Series
• IBM’s MQ Series is a popular mainframe
message oriented middleware system
that has also been integrated into
IBM’s WebSphere Web Server.
• Details can be found at the
IBM Web Site.
• The text gives a brief summary of the
functionality and operation of MQ
Series.

34. Data Streams
• There are a variety of approaches to stream
oriented communications, which consist of
ways to pass timing dependent information
over persistent connections that are
established for the purpose. The sockets
exercise gives a good practical understanding
of TCP streams. Other mechanisms include
pipes and compiler based stream libraries.

35. References
• George Coularis, Jean Dollimore and Tim Kindberg,
Distributed Systems, Concepts and Design, Addison
Wesley, Fourth Edition, 2005
• Figures from the Coulouris text are from the
instructor’s guide and are copyrighted by Pearson
Education 2005
• Andrew Tanenbaum and Martin van Steen, Distributed
Systems, Principles and Paradigms, Prentice Hall, 2002
• Phil Dykstra, Gigabit Ethernet Jumbo Frames
http://sd.wareonearth.com/~phil/jumbo.html