The document discusses interprocess communication and distributed systems, noting that distributed systems rely on defined communication protocols like interprocess communication using message passing over networks. It also covers topics like overhead in communication systems, different data storage and transfer formats between systems like XML, and Java object serialization for complex data transfer. Effective communication protocols aim to minimize overhead while maximizing throughput.
Inter-Process Communication in distributed systemsAya Mahmoud
Inter-Process Communication is at the heart of all distributed systems, so we need to know the ways that processes can exchange information.
Communication in distributed systems is based on Low-level message passing as offered by the underlying network.
IPC allows processes to communicate and share resources. There are several common IPC mechanisms, including message passing, shared memory, semaphores, files, signals, sockets, message queues, and pipes. Message passing involves establishing a communication link and exchanging fixed or variable sized messages using send and receive operations. Shared memory allows processes to access the same memory area. Semaphores are used to synchronize processes. Files provide durable storage that outlives individual processes. Signals asynchronously notify processes of events. Sockets enable two-way point-to-point communication between processes. Message queues allow asynchronous communication where senders and receivers do not need to interact simultaneously. Pipes create a pipeline between processes by connecting standard streams.
There are several mechanisms for inter-process communication (IPC) in UNIX systems, including message queues, shared memory, and semaphores. Message queues allow processes to exchange data by placing messages into a queue that can be accessed by other processes. Shared memory allows processes to communicate by declaring a section of memory that can be accessed simultaneously. Semaphores are used to synchronize processes so they do not access critical sections at the same time.
This document discusses coordination-based distributed systems. It begins with an introduction to coordination models and a taxonomy that categorizes models based on temporal and referential coupling. Traditional architectures like JavaSpaces and TIB/Rendezvous are described, as well as peer-to-peer architectures using gossip-based publish/subscribe. Mobility coordination with Lime is covered. Key aspects of processes, communication, content-based routing, and supporting composite subscriptions in coordination systems are also summarized.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) provides processes with a shared address space across distributed memory systems. DSM exists only virtually through primitives like read and write operations. It gives the illusion of physically shared memory while allowing loosely coupled distributed systems to share memory. DSM refers to applying this shared memory paradigm using distributed memory systems connected by a communication network. Each node has CPUs, memory, and blocks of shared memory can be cached locally but migrated on demand between nodes to maintain consistency.
INTRODUCTIONTO OPERATING SYSTEM
What is an Operating System?
Mainframe Systems
Desktop Systems
Multiprocessor Systems
Distributed Systems
Clustered System
Real -Time Systems
Handheld Systems
Computing Environments
Client-Centric Consistency
Provide guarantees about ordering of operations only for a single client, i.e.
Effects of an operations depend on the client performing it
Effects also depend on the history of client’s operations
Applied only when requested by the client
No guarantees concerning concurrent accesses by different clients
Assumption:
Clients can access different replicas, e.g. mobile users
The document discusses different models for distributed systems including physical, architectural and fundamental models. It describes the physical model which captures the hardware composition and different generations of distributed systems. The architectural model specifies the components and relationships in a system. Key architectural elements discussed include communicating entities like processes and objects, communication paradigms like remote invocation and indirect communication, roles and responsibilities of entities, and their physical placement. Common architectures like client-server, layered and tiered are also summarized.
Inter-Process Communication in distributed systemsAya Mahmoud
Inter-Process Communication is at the heart of all distributed systems, so we need to know the ways that processes can exchange information.
Communication in distributed systems is based on Low-level message passing as offered by the underlying network.
IPC allows processes to communicate and share resources. There are several common IPC mechanisms, including message passing, shared memory, semaphores, files, signals, sockets, message queues, and pipes. Message passing involves establishing a communication link and exchanging fixed or variable sized messages using send and receive operations. Shared memory allows processes to access the same memory area. Semaphores are used to synchronize processes. Files provide durable storage that outlives individual processes. Signals asynchronously notify processes of events. Sockets enable two-way point-to-point communication between processes. Message queues allow asynchronous communication where senders and receivers do not need to interact simultaneously. Pipes create a pipeline between processes by connecting standard streams.
There are several mechanisms for inter-process communication (IPC) in UNIX systems, including message queues, shared memory, and semaphores. Message queues allow processes to exchange data by placing messages into a queue that can be accessed by other processes. Shared memory allows processes to communicate by declaring a section of memory that can be accessed simultaneously. Semaphores are used to synchronize processes so they do not access critical sections at the same time.
This document discusses coordination-based distributed systems. It begins with an introduction to coordination models and a taxonomy that categorizes models based on temporal and referential coupling. Traditional architectures like JavaSpaces and TIB/Rendezvous are described, as well as peer-to-peer architectures using gossip-based publish/subscribe. Mobility coordination with Lime is covered. Key aspects of processes, communication, content-based routing, and supporting composite subscriptions in coordination systems are also summarized.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) provides processes with a shared address space across distributed memory systems. DSM exists only virtually through primitives like read and write operations. It gives the illusion of physically shared memory while allowing loosely coupled distributed systems to share memory. DSM refers to applying this shared memory paradigm using distributed memory systems connected by a communication network. Each node has CPUs, memory, and blocks of shared memory can be cached locally but migrated on demand between nodes to maintain consistency.
INTRODUCTIONTO OPERATING SYSTEM
What is an Operating System?
Mainframe Systems
Desktop Systems
Multiprocessor Systems
Distributed Systems
Clustered System
Real -Time Systems
Handheld Systems
Computing Environments
Client-Centric Consistency
Provide guarantees about ordering of operations only for a single client, i.e.
Effects of an operations depend on the client performing it
Effects also depend on the history of client’s operations
Applied only when requested by the client
No guarantees concerning concurrent accesses by different clients
Assumption:
Clients can access different replicas, e.g. mobile users
The document discusses different models for distributed systems including physical, architectural and fundamental models. It describes the physical model which captures the hardware composition and different generations of distributed systems. The architectural model specifies the components and relationships in a system. Key architectural elements discussed include communicating entities like processes and objects, communication paradigms like remote invocation and indirect communication, roles and responsibilities of entities, and their physical placement. Common architectures like client-server, layered and tiered are also summarized.
Independent processes operate concurrently without affecting each other, while cooperating processes can impact one another. Inter-process communication (IPC) allows processes to share information, improve computation speed, and share resources. The two main types of IPC are shared memory and message passing. Shared memory uses a common memory region for fast communication, while message passing involves establishing communication links and exchanging messages without shared variables. Key considerations for message passing include direct vs indirect communication and synchronous vs asynchronous messaging.
This document discusses interprocess communication and distributed systems. It covers several key topics:
- Application programming interfaces (APIs) for internet protocols like TCP and UDP, which provide building blocks for communication protocols.
- External data representation standards for transmitting objects between processes on different machines.
- Client-server communication models like request-reply that allow processes to invoke methods on remote objects.
- Group communication using multicast to allow a message from one client to be sent to multiple server processes simultaneously.
Operating system support in distributed systemishapadhy
The document discusses operating system support and components. It states that an operating system must provide encapsulation, concurrent processing, and protection. It lists the main OS components as the process manager, thread manager, communication manager, memory manager, and supervisor. It also discusses process/thread concepts such as address spaces, creation of new processes, and threads in distributed systems for multi-threaded clients and servers.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) is a memory architecture where physically separate memories can be addressed as a single logical address space. In a DSM system, data moves between nodes' main and secondary memories when a process accesses shared data. Each node has a memory mapping manager that maps the shared virtual memory to local physical memory. DSM provides advantages like shielding programmers from message passing, lower cost than multiprocessors, and large virtual address spaces, but disadvantages include potential performance penalties from remote data access and lack of programmer control over messaging.
Synchronization in distributed computingSVijaylakshmi
Synchronization in distributed systems is achieved via clocks. The physical clocks are used to adjust the time of nodes. Each node in the system can share its local time with other nodes in the system. The time is set based on UTC (Universal Time Coordination).
nterprocess communication (IPC) is a set of programming interfaces that allow a programmer to coordinate activities among different program processes that can run concurrently in an operating system. This allows a program to handle many user requests at the same time. Since even a single user request may result in multiple processes running in the operating system on the user's behalf, the processes need to communicate with each other. The IPC interfaces make this possible. Each IPC method has its own advantages and limitations so it is not unusual for a single program to use all of the IPC methods.
IPC methods include pipes and named pipes; message queueing;semaphores; shared memory; and sockets.
This document discusses distributed transactions and the challenges of ensuring they satisfy the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability even when transactions span multiple systems. It introduces the two-phase commit protocol, where a coordinator first polls participants if they can commit and then tells them to either commit or abort, addressing failures through durable logs and timeouts. While two-phase commit ensures all or nothing completion, it risks long blocks if the coordinator or participants fail.
This document provides an overview of distributed operating systems. It discusses the motivation for distributed systems including resource sharing, reliability, and computation speedup. It describes different types of distributed operating systems like network operating systems where users are aware of multiple machines, and distributed operating systems where users are not aware. It also covers network structures, topologies, communication structures, protocols, and provides an example of networking. The objectives are to provide a high-level overview of distributed systems and discuss the general structure of distributed operating systems.
Inter-process communication (IPC) allows processes to communicate and synchronize. Common IPC methods include pipes, message queues, shared memory, semaphores, and mutexes. Pipes provide unidirectional communication while message queues allow full-duplex communication through message passing. Shared memory enables processes to access the same memory region. Direct IPC requires processes to explicitly name communication partners while indirect IPC uses shared mailboxes.
The document discusses various topologies for connecting processors in parallel computing systems, including bus, star, tree, fully connected, ring, mesh, wrap-around mesh, and hypercube topologies. It examines the hardware cost, communication performance, and scalability of each topology. Additionally, it covers synchronous and asynchronous communication methods between processors and issues that can arise like deadlocks.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to time and clock synchronization in distributed systems. It discusses the need to synchronize clocks across different computers to accurately timestamp events. Physical clocks drift over time so various clock synchronization algorithms like Cristian's algorithm and Berkeley algorithm are presented to synchronize clocks within a known bound. The Network Time Protocol (NTP) used on the internet to synchronize client clocks to UTC sources through a hierarchy of time servers is also summarized. Logical clocks provide an alternative to physical clock synchronization by assigning timestamps to events based on their order of occurrence.
Replication in computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility.
Parallel computing is computing architecture paradigm ., in which processing required to solve a problem is done in more than one processor parallel way.
Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) allow a program to execute a procedure in another address space without needing to know where it is located. RPC uses client and server stubs that conceal the underlying message passing between client and server processes. The client stub packs the procedure call into a message and sends it to the server stub, which unpacks it and executes the procedure before returning any results. This makes remote procedure calls appear as local procedure calls to improve transparency. IDL is used to define interfaces and generate client/server stubs automatically to simplify development of distributed applications using RPC.
Clock synchronization in distributed systemSunita Sahu
This document discusses several techniques for clock synchronization in distributed systems:
1. Time stamping events and messages with logical clocks to determine partial ordering without a global clock. Logical clocks assign monotonically increasing sequence numbers.
2. Clock synchronization algorithms like NTP that regularly adjust system clocks across the network to synchronize with a time server. NTP uses averaging to account for network delays.
3. Lamport's logical clocks algorithm that defines "happened before" relations and increments clocks between events to synchronize logical clocks across processes.
This document discusses interprocess communication (IPC) and message passing in distributed systems. It covers key topics such as:
- The two main approaches to IPC - shared memory and message passing
- Desirable features of message passing systems like simplicity, uniform semantics, efficiency, reliability, correctness, flexibility, security, and portability
- Issues in message passing IPC like message format, synchronization methods (blocking vs. non-blocking), and buffering strategies
A Distributed File System(DFS) is simply a classical model of a file system distributed across multiple machines.The purpose is to promote sharing of dispersed files.
This document discusses various inter-process communication (IPC) types including shared memory, mapped memory, pipes, FIFOs, message queues, sockets, and signals. Shared memory allows processes to directly read and write to the same region of memory, requiring synchronization between processes. Mapped memory permits processes to communicate by mapping the same file into memory. Pipes and FIFOs allow for sequential data transfer between related and unrelated processes. Message queues provide a way for processes to exchange messages via a common queue. Signals are used to asynchronously notify processes of events.
The document discusses two main distributed document-based systems: the World Wide Web and Lotus Notes. For the World Wide Web, it describes how documents are represented and accessed via HTTP, how servers are clustered for performance and availability, and how caching and content delivery networks improve performance. For Lotus Notes, it outlines how notes are organized in databases and replicated across servers for availability, and how conflicts during replication are resolved. Both systems use security mechanisms like TLS/SSL and public-key cryptography.
The document discusses the network layer of the OSI model. It describes the network layer's role in dividing networks into groups, facilitating communication between networks via routing. Key aspects covered include network layer protocols like IP, addressing, packet structure, grouping devices into networks via hierarchical addressing, and the fundamentals of routing tables, next hop addresses, and packet forwarding.
Data communication involves transferring data from one device to another via a transmission medium. There are 5 basic components: a message, sender, receiver, transmission medium, and protocols. Networks allow devices to share information. Protocols establish communication rules. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for system interoperability with its 7-layer architecture separating network support and user support functions. TCP/IP is another important protocol suite used widely on the internet.
Independent processes operate concurrently without affecting each other, while cooperating processes can impact one another. Inter-process communication (IPC) allows processes to share information, improve computation speed, and share resources. The two main types of IPC are shared memory and message passing. Shared memory uses a common memory region for fast communication, while message passing involves establishing communication links and exchanging messages without shared variables. Key considerations for message passing include direct vs indirect communication and synchronous vs asynchronous messaging.
This document discusses interprocess communication and distributed systems. It covers several key topics:
- Application programming interfaces (APIs) for internet protocols like TCP and UDP, which provide building blocks for communication protocols.
- External data representation standards for transmitting objects between processes on different machines.
- Client-server communication models like request-reply that allow processes to invoke methods on remote objects.
- Group communication using multicast to allow a message from one client to be sent to multiple server processes simultaneously.
Operating system support in distributed systemishapadhy
The document discusses operating system support and components. It states that an operating system must provide encapsulation, concurrent processing, and protection. It lists the main OS components as the process manager, thread manager, communication manager, memory manager, and supervisor. It also discusses process/thread concepts such as address spaces, creation of new processes, and threads in distributed systems for multi-threaded clients and servers.
Distributed shared memory (DSM) is a memory architecture where physically separate memories can be addressed as a single logical address space. In a DSM system, data moves between nodes' main and secondary memories when a process accesses shared data. Each node has a memory mapping manager that maps the shared virtual memory to local physical memory. DSM provides advantages like shielding programmers from message passing, lower cost than multiprocessors, and large virtual address spaces, but disadvantages include potential performance penalties from remote data access and lack of programmer control over messaging.
Synchronization in distributed computingSVijaylakshmi
Synchronization in distributed systems is achieved via clocks. The physical clocks are used to adjust the time of nodes. Each node in the system can share its local time with other nodes in the system. The time is set based on UTC (Universal Time Coordination).
nterprocess communication (IPC) is a set of programming interfaces that allow a programmer to coordinate activities among different program processes that can run concurrently in an operating system. This allows a program to handle many user requests at the same time. Since even a single user request may result in multiple processes running in the operating system on the user's behalf, the processes need to communicate with each other. The IPC interfaces make this possible. Each IPC method has its own advantages and limitations so it is not unusual for a single program to use all of the IPC methods.
IPC methods include pipes and named pipes; message queueing;semaphores; shared memory; and sockets.
This document discusses distributed transactions and the challenges of ensuring they satisfy the ACID properties of atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability even when transactions span multiple systems. It introduces the two-phase commit protocol, where a coordinator first polls participants if they can commit and then tells them to either commit or abort, addressing failures through durable logs and timeouts. While two-phase commit ensures all or nothing completion, it risks long blocks if the coordinator or participants fail.
This document provides an overview of distributed operating systems. It discusses the motivation for distributed systems including resource sharing, reliability, and computation speedup. It describes different types of distributed operating systems like network operating systems where users are aware of multiple machines, and distributed operating systems where users are not aware. It also covers network structures, topologies, communication structures, protocols, and provides an example of networking. The objectives are to provide a high-level overview of distributed systems and discuss the general structure of distributed operating systems.
Inter-process communication (IPC) allows processes to communicate and synchronize. Common IPC methods include pipes, message queues, shared memory, semaphores, and mutexes. Pipes provide unidirectional communication while message queues allow full-duplex communication through message passing. Shared memory enables processes to access the same memory region. Direct IPC requires processes to explicitly name communication partners while indirect IPC uses shared mailboxes.
The document discusses various topologies for connecting processors in parallel computing systems, including bus, star, tree, fully connected, ring, mesh, wrap-around mesh, and hypercube topologies. It examines the hardware cost, communication performance, and scalability of each topology. Additionally, it covers synchronous and asynchronous communication methods between processors and issues that can arise like deadlocks.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to time and clock synchronization in distributed systems. It discusses the need to synchronize clocks across different computers to accurately timestamp events. Physical clocks drift over time so various clock synchronization algorithms like Cristian's algorithm and Berkeley algorithm are presented to synchronize clocks within a known bound. The Network Time Protocol (NTP) used on the internet to synchronize client clocks to UTC sources through a hierarchy of time servers is also summarized. Logical clocks provide an alternative to physical clock synchronization by assigning timestamps to events based on their order of occurrence.
Replication in computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility.
Parallel computing is computing architecture paradigm ., in which processing required to solve a problem is done in more than one processor parallel way.
Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) allow a program to execute a procedure in another address space without needing to know where it is located. RPC uses client and server stubs that conceal the underlying message passing between client and server processes. The client stub packs the procedure call into a message and sends it to the server stub, which unpacks it and executes the procedure before returning any results. This makes remote procedure calls appear as local procedure calls to improve transparency. IDL is used to define interfaces and generate client/server stubs automatically to simplify development of distributed applications using RPC.
Clock synchronization in distributed systemSunita Sahu
This document discusses several techniques for clock synchronization in distributed systems:
1. Time stamping events and messages with logical clocks to determine partial ordering without a global clock. Logical clocks assign monotonically increasing sequence numbers.
2. Clock synchronization algorithms like NTP that regularly adjust system clocks across the network to synchronize with a time server. NTP uses averaging to account for network delays.
3. Lamport's logical clocks algorithm that defines "happened before" relations and increments clocks between events to synchronize logical clocks across processes.
This document discusses interprocess communication (IPC) and message passing in distributed systems. It covers key topics such as:
- The two main approaches to IPC - shared memory and message passing
- Desirable features of message passing systems like simplicity, uniform semantics, efficiency, reliability, correctness, flexibility, security, and portability
- Issues in message passing IPC like message format, synchronization methods (blocking vs. non-blocking), and buffering strategies
A Distributed File System(DFS) is simply a classical model of a file system distributed across multiple machines.The purpose is to promote sharing of dispersed files.
This document discusses various inter-process communication (IPC) types including shared memory, mapped memory, pipes, FIFOs, message queues, sockets, and signals. Shared memory allows processes to directly read and write to the same region of memory, requiring synchronization between processes. Mapped memory permits processes to communicate by mapping the same file into memory. Pipes and FIFOs allow for sequential data transfer between related and unrelated processes. Message queues provide a way for processes to exchange messages via a common queue. Signals are used to asynchronously notify processes of events.
The document discusses two main distributed document-based systems: the World Wide Web and Lotus Notes. For the World Wide Web, it describes how documents are represented and accessed via HTTP, how servers are clustered for performance and availability, and how caching and content delivery networks improve performance. For Lotus Notes, it outlines how notes are organized in databases and replicated across servers for availability, and how conflicts during replication are resolved. Both systems use security mechanisms like TLS/SSL and public-key cryptography.
The document discusses the network layer of the OSI model. It describes the network layer's role in dividing networks into groups, facilitating communication between networks via routing. Key aspects covered include network layer protocols like IP, addressing, packet structure, grouping devices into networks via hierarchical addressing, and the fundamentals of routing tables, next hop addresses, and packet forwarding.
Data communication involves transferring data from one device to another via a transmission medium. There are 5 basic components: a message, sender, receiver, transmission medium, and protocols. Networks allow devices to share information. Protocols establish communication rules. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for system interoperability with its 7-layer architecture separating network support and user support functions. TCP/IP is another important protocol suite used widely on the internet.
The document discusses interprocess communication in distributed systems. It introduces four widely used communication models: remote procedure call (RPC), message-oriented middleware (MOM), stream-oriented communication, and multicast communication. RPC allows processes to call procedures located on other machines transparently. MOM supports persistent asynchronous communication through message queues.
The document discusses TCP/IP and the OSI model. It provides details on:
- TCP/IP consisting of rules for protocol used with IP to send data between computers over the Internet. IP handles delivery while TCP tracks data transmission.
- The 7-layer OSI model with layers grouped into physical/data link, network/transport, and application/presentation/session. Layers define communication details and encapsulation/decapsulation of data.
- Common data units including segments, packets, datagrams, frames, cells, and bits/bytes. Encapsulation adds headers at each layer.
- Other topics covered include IP addressing, domain name servers, URLs, wireless networks, Wi-Fi, WiMax
The document provides an overview of the ISO OSI model and its 7 layers, describing the functions of each layer. It then discusses several topics related to computer networks, including the ISO/OSI model (layers and functions), ISDN (architecture and usage), LAN protocols (such as Ethernet), framing in the data link layer and its importance, and the IEEE 802.11 wireless networking standard.
The document discusses network protocols and protocol layering. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and four layers of the TCP/IP model. It explains the functions of each layer, including physical addressing at layer 2, logical addressing and routing at layer 3, transport functions like segmentation and error checking at layer 4, and application functions at layer 7. Common protocols are assigned to each layer, such as IP, TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP. Protocol layering allows dividing network designs into functional layers and assigning protocols to perform each layer's tasks.
Internet Technology Lectures
network protocols, TCP/IP Model
Lecturer: Saman M. Almufti / Kurdistan Region, Nawroz University
facebook: https://www.facebook.com/saman.malmufti
YouTube Link:https://youtu.be/JgbAWAc0fDs
This document provides an overview of CCNA Module 1 on internetworking. It describes the purpose of routers, switches, hubs and other network devices. It also covers networking concepts like collision domains, broadcast domains, and the operation of Ethernet networks using CSMA/CD. The document explains the OSI model layers and compares it to the TCP/IP model. It also discusses common network applications and protocols like TCP, UDP, IP, ARP and ICMP.
The document discusses the OSI model and TCP/IP protocol stack. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model and the functions of each layer, including the physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application layers. It then maps the layers of the TCP/IP protocol stack to the OSI model, describing the functions of the physical network, data link, internet, transport, and application layers. It provides examples of protocols that operate at each layer, such as IP, TCP, UDP, ARP, and ICMP.
The document discusses the TCP/IP protocol stack and address resolution. It describes the five layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite - physical, data link, network, transport, and application layers. It also compares the TCP/IP and OSI models. Address resolution is explained, which is the process of mapping between Layer 3 network addresses and Layer 2 hardware addresses. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) allows hosts to dynamically discover the MAC address associated with a known IP address on the local network.
The document discusses several topics related to computer network architecture and protocols. It begins by defining network architecture as a framework for designing, building, and managing communication networks. It describes the OSI 7-layer model and each of its layers. It also discusses the TCP/IP network architecture, IP addressing formats and classes, TCP and UDP protocols, and serial communication modes like simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Power point presentation on osi model.
A good presentation cover all topics.
For any other type of ppt's or pdf's to be created on demand contact -dhawalm8@gmail.com
mob. no-7023419969
TCP/IP is the standard communication protocol on the internet. It is comprised of several layers including application, transport, internet, and link layers. The transport layer includes TCP and UDP which provide connection-oriented and connectionless data transmission respectively. TCP ensures reliable data delivery through features like connections, acknowledgments, and flow control. IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol which addresses the shortcomings of IPv4 like limited address space. IPv6 features include a larger 128-bit address space, simplified header format, built-in security, and autoconfiguration capabilities.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a seven-layer framework for networking that passes control from one layer to the next starting at the application layer. The TCP/IP model also uses a layered approach with four layers that correspond to layers in the OSI model. Each layer performs specific functions like breaking data into packets, routing packets, and ensuring reliable delivery between hosts.
The document discusses the role and functions of the Network layer (OSI Layer 3) in data networks. It examines the Internet Protocol (IP) as the most widely used Network layer protocol. IP provides connectionless and best-effort delivery of data packets across networks. The document also discusses how networks are logically grouped and addressed in a hierarchical manner to allow communication between large numbers of devices across interconnected networks. Key concepts covered include addressing, routing, encapsulation, next hop forwarding, and the use of static and dynamic routing to build routing tables.
This document discusses layered network models, specifically the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides an overview of each layer in both models and their functions. The key points are:
- The OSI model defines 7 layers that break communication into smaller parts to simplify the process and allow different hardware/software to work together.
- The TCP/IP model has 4 layers - application, transport, internet, and network access. It is used widely on the internet.
- Each layer adds header information to data as it moves down the stack. This encapsulation allows communication between layers and across networks.
This document is a project report on computer networking submitted by Manas Chatterjee to the Advanced Regional Telecom Training Center. It includes a certificate verifying Manas completed the project under the guidance of R.K. Ram. The report covers topics such as types of networks, networking models, IP addressing, and basic networking components and concepts.
The document provides an overview of protocol architectures and the TCP/IP protocol stack. It discusses how protocol architectures establish rules for exchanging data between systems using layered protocols. The TCP/IP model is then explained in detail through its five layers - physical, network access, internet, transport and application - and core protocols like IP, TCP and UDP. Key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are also summarized.
National Diploma Unit 08 Communication Technology Assignment 2 Support Material provides information on communication protocols and wireless technology. It explains the principles of signal theory and describes common communication protocols like TCP/IP and Bluetooth. It discusses how digital signals are represented as strings of zeros and ones. The document also covers wireless LAN protocols like 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g and security protocols like WEP and WPA. It provides examples of wireless technologies in use such as mobile phones, WiFi, and infrared communications.
The document compares the OSI and TCP/IP models and provides details on each layer of the OSI model.
The key points are:
1) The OSI model is an internationally standardized network architecture consisting of 7 layers, while TCP/IP was developed independently and its layers do not exactly match the OSI layers.
2) Each OSI layer has a specific function, with the physical layer defining physical interfaces, the data link layer handling framing and addressing, the network layer routing packets, and higher layers focusing on reliability and delivering data to applications.
3) TCP/IP uses four types of addresses - physical, logical, port, and application-specific - that correspond to different layers, with physical addresses changing
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Letter and Document Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Sol...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on automated letter generation for Bonterra Impact Management using Google Workspace or Microsoft 365.
Interested in deploying letter generation automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Nunit vs XUnit vs MSTest Differences Between These Unit Testing Frameworks.pdfflufftailshop
When it comes to unit testing in the .NET ecosystem, developers have a wide range of options available. Among the most popular choices are NUnit, XUnit, and MSTest. These unit testing frameworks provide essential tools and features to help ensure the quality and reliability of code. However, understanding the differences between these frameworks is crucial for selecting the most suitable one for your projects.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
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2. Distributed Systems
• “A distributed system is a collection of
independent computers that appear to
its users as a single system.”
(Tanenbaum)
• Distributed systems are therefore built
around communication. Actually, it
could be argued that computers are
used more as communication devices
than computational devices.
3. Communications
• Because communications are critical to
distributed systems, communications
protocols tend to be well defined. A key form
of communications is interprocess
communications, based on low-level message
passing over the network.
• Protocols are sets of rules that must be
followed to enable standardized
communications.
4. Overhead
• Overhead is a financial term that refers to indirect
costs in a business. For example, a merchant cannot
sell you a product for the price that he pays because
he has additional costs beyond buying the
merchandise such as rent and staff wages. Overhead
always puts pressure on profits, so it must be kept to
a minimum. Because corporations treat information
technology as overhead, overhead is a major concern
in this course. Activities that support work rather
than doing work in IT are also costs and are referred
to as overhead.
5. Communications Overhead
• In most communication systems, overhead is a key
concern. Overhead activities are background
operations that do not directly involve sending and
receiving messages. Headers and footers involve
sending extra information, so they are overhead. In
a phone system, overhead includes time spent setting
up and tearing down the circuit path over which a
phone call can take place. TCP is like a phone call,
since it has to set up, tear down, and manage
operations in addition to “talk time.”
6. Headers and trailers
• Each level is packaged as data to other
levels with a header attached.
Headers Trailer
Message
Note that short messages are mostly overhead while long messages
involve a much higher proportion of actual work.
7. Normal Operation of TCP
Figure 2-4a in Tanenbaum et al
SYN Steps 4 and 7 do the
1
SYN, ACK(SYN) communication. All
2
ACK(SYN) of the rest of the TCP
3
request messages are
4
FIN overhead operations.
5
ACK(req+FIN) 6 KEY:
answer
7 SYNchronize
FIN ACKnowledge
8
ACK(FIN)
9 FINished
8. Transactional TCP
Figure 2-4b in Tanenbaum et al
SYN, request, FIN
1 By sending the
SYN, ACK(FIN), answer, FIN 2 message and response
ACK(FIN)
3 with the overhead
signals, transactional
TCP can speed up
throughput and
reduce overhead time
delays.
9. Classroom Exercise
• Calculate the percentage improvement in
throughput of Transactional TCP (sending 3
messages instead of 9) under the following
assumptions:
• 1) Short packets, dominated by latency of 10 ms.
• 2) Ethernet LAN, 10 ms latency, 10Mbps bandwidth,
maximum Ethernet packet size of 1500 bytes.
• 3) TCP/IP WAN, 20 ms latency, 500 Mbps bandwidth,
maximum TCP packet size of 64KB. (Latency assumes
multiple hops between routers)
• Thought exercise: When is Transactional TCP
worthwhile?
10. Ethernet Jumbo Frames
• Ethernet Jumbo Frames of 9KB are possible
if supported end to end. A 9KB Ethernet
frame can hold an 8 KB TCP/IP datagram
(NFS standard) plus packet overhead.
Ethernet cannot use 64KB packets because
it uses CRC for error correction, and CRC
has an upper limit of 12KB, which is hard
to change. [P. Dykstra]
11. Upper Bound of TCP
• Dykstra’s article (see References) is a good discussion
of frame (packet, datagram) size.
• Dykstra quotes an article by Matt Mathis et al. which
sets this limit on TCP WAN performance:
• Throughput <= ~0.7 * MSS / (rtt * sqrt(packet_loss))
• MSS – Max Segment Size = Packet size minus TCP
headers
• rtt = Round trip time (about 40 ms NYC – LA)
• packet_loss = percentage of packets lost (wide
variation, 0.1 % is a typical value.
12. Importance of Mathis Formula
• If you examine the formula:
• Throughput <= ~0.7 * MSS / (rtt * sqrt(packet_loss))
• You will see that throughput is dominated by the
maximum segment size, since the error rate has an
inverse square effect on performance. In general,
doubling the MSS doubles performance.
• Remember that maximum segment size, packet size,
datagram size and frame size all mean
approximately the same thing.
13. Storing Data
• Data stored in digital format is composed of binary
sequences that have a combination of logical and
arbitrary meanings attached to them. Most binary
formats for numbers are logical, although there are
a lot of differences in storage sizes and handling
negative numbers and exponents. While it is
somewhat logical that 0101 represents 5 as a short
integer, it is somewhat less logical that 01000001
represents A and 01100001represents a in the ASCII
code or that 00011000 represents A and 00010100
represents a in the EBCDIC code.
14. Numeric formats
• Some computers store data in memory in different
ways, so that a value of 11110000 might be stored
so that the 1111 is in the lowest memory location
on one computer and the 0000 on another. The
same binary integer would have different meanings
as an unsigned integer or a signed integer with
two’s complement notation. There are different
formats for storing floating point numbers.
Computers have different register sizes, making
default word sizes of 8, 16, 32, 36 or 64 bits most
practical in different CPUs.
15. Transferring Data
• With different coding schemes, memory storage
order, word sizes and numeric formats, generic
attempts to transfer information between systems
must carefully define formats for the transferred
data and have ways to convert data to the data
transfer format and back to another format. Such a
scheme must understand the format at both ends of
the transaction. The intermediate format is called an
External Data Representation (XDR), and a set of
commands to accomplish that is called an Interface
Definition Language (IDL).
16. External Data Representation
• There are three different common approaches
to XDR:
• CORBA’s common data representation, which
can be used by a variety of languages.
• Java’s object serialization, which can even
pass complex objects across a network, but is
limited to Java only.
• Extensible Markup Language (XML), which
can represent even structured data as ASCII
text.
17. Marshalling and
Unmarshalling
• Converting information to a network
transportable form (XDR) following
the specifications of an IDL is called
marshalling. Converting it back to an
application readable format is called
unmarshalling.
18. Java Object Serialization
• Serialization transforms an object into a sequence of
bytes. This allows objects to be saved to files or
transferred across a network, and is a key feature of
Java. Since objects can have attributes that are also
objects, and those objects can have object attributes,
serialization allows a very complex structure to be
transferred across a network or stored in a file.
• Classes that need to be stored in files or transferred
over a network should implement the
java.io.serializable interface.
19. Reflection
• Java supports reflection—the ability to
enquire about the properties of a class,
including the names and types of its instance
variables. Classes can be created from their
names, and a constructor with specified
arguments can create a class. Reflection
makes serialization and deserialization
possible and allows a class to be instantiated
by a Java Virtual Machine after transfer across
a network.
20. The Document is the Object
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
Describes the structure of a document
Defines new tags
Specifies metadata that lets programs discover
document structure
DOM (Document Object Model)
Allows programmatic access to XML
structure and content of XML documents
XSL (eXtensible Style Language)
The XML version of Style sheets
21. What is XML?
• XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language.
• XML specification defines a syntax and
document organization for data, represented by
tag/value pairs.
• XML Elements have data surrounded by
matching start and end tags.
• XML Attributes are optional in some start tags
and have an identifier with an = sign.
• There is a well defined syntax that can be
parsed.
22. XML Namespaces
• An XML namespace is a collection of names,
identified by a URI reference, which are used in
XML documents as element types and attribute
names. XML namespaces have internal structure
and are not, mathematically speaking, sets.
• The file that identifies the namespace can be
specified as an attribute called xmlns like this:
xmlns:pers = “http://www.cdk4.net/person
• See http://www.w3.org/XML/ for specifications.
23. XML Schemas
• An XML Schema defines the elements
and attributes that can be used in a
document, how they can be nested, the
order and number of the elements, and
whether an element is empty or can
include text. Default values and types
are defined. An example is Coulouris
figure 4.12 shown on the next slide.
24. Figure 4.12 An XML schema
for the Person structure
<xsd:schema xmlns:xsd = URL of XML schema definitions >
<xsd:element name= "person" type ="personType" />
<xsd:complexType name="personType">
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name = "name" type="xs:string"/>
<xsd:element name = "place" type="xs:string"/>
<xsd:element name = "year"
type="xs:positiveInteger"/>
</xsd:sequence>
<xsd:attribute name= "id" type = "xs:positiveInteger"/>
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:schema>
25. XML: Structured Data in a
Text File
Spreadsheets, address books,
configuration parameters, financial
transactions, product catalogs…
XML defines a set of rules and
conventions for designing text formats for
such data
Easy to generate and read by computer
Extensible
26. Role of XML
• Applications built on different
technologies can communicate via XML.
• New integration tools and integration
servers capitalize on emergence of XML as
an integration technology.
• Many .NET and J2EE technologies, such as
SOAP, XML Web Services, JXTA, XML-RPC,
and EJB use or are based on XML.
27. Client/Server Communication
• Communication in Client/Server
systems uses a variety of well specified
request/reply mechanisms with send
and receive protocols defined by TCP,
RPC, Java RMI, CORBA and other
formats.
28. Figure 4.14
Request-reply communication
Client Server
Request
doOperation
message getRequest
select object
(wait) execute
Reply method
message sendReply
(continuation)
29. Message Oriented
Communication
• Remote procedure calls and remote object
invocation are not always sufficient or
appropriate for all communications in
distributed systems. They tend to be
optimized for immediate connections
between two systems, and may be inadequate
for operations that persist over time or
involve multiple connections requiring
synchronization. For this, message oriented
protocols such as mail protocols have been
developed.
30. Persistent Communication
• In persistent communication, a
message may be stored until it can be
passed on to a recipient. Compare this
to the distinction between a simple
telephone and an answering machine.
Without the answering machine, you
must be present when the phone rings
to get a message.
31. Message Oriented
Middleware
• In MOM, applications communicate by inserting
messages in specific queues. As the queues are
processed, messages are forwarded to other
computers. There may be several intermediates.
At the destination queue, individual messages may
be accepted and acted upon, and responses sent
back through the system. Only passing to the
receiver’s queue is guaranteed by the system.
Accepting, reading or acting upon the message is
up to the receiver.
32. MOM
• Messages can contain any data, but must be
properly addressed. Usually, there is a systemwide
unique name for the receiving queue. This allows a
very simple interface. Queues are managed by
queue managers, which may also act as relays to
forward messages to other queues. Messages of
different types can be interconnected by
specialized applications called message brokers,
which apply a set of rules to convert a message to
a different type.
33. IBM’s MQ Series
• IBM’s MQ Series is a popular mainframe
message oriented middleware system
that has also been integrated into
IBM’s WebSphere Web Server.
• Details can be found at the
IBM Web Site.
• The text gives a brief summary of the
functionality and operation of MQ
Series.
34. Data Streams
• There are a variety of approaches to stream
oriented communications, which consist of
ways to pass timing dependent information
over persistent connections that are
established for the purpose. The sockets
exercise gives a good practical understanding
of TCP streams. Other mechanisms include
pipes and compiler based stream libraries.
35. References
• George Coularis, Jean Dollimore and Tim Kindberg,
Distributed Systems, Concepts and Design, Addison
Wesley, Fourth Edition, 2005
• Figures from the Coulouris text are from the
instructor’s guide and are copyrighted by Pearson
Education 2005
• Andrew Tanenbaum and Martin van Steen, Distributed
Systems, Principles and Paradigms, Prentice Hall, 2002
• Phil Dykstra, Gigabit Ethernet Jumbo Frames
http://sd.wareonearth.com/~phil/jumbo.html