The document discusses the network layer of the OSI model. It describes the network layer's role in dividing networks into groups, facilitating communication between networks via routing. Key aspects covered include network layer protocols like IP, addressing, packet structure, grouping devices into networks via hierarchical addressing, and the fundamentals of routing tables, next hop addresses, and packet forwarding.
Internet Technology Lectures
network protocols, TCP/IP Model
Lecturer: Saman M. Almufti / Kurdistan Region, Nawroz University
facebook: https://www.facebook.com/saman.malmufti
YouTube Link:https://youtu.be/JgbAWAc0fDs
Full video explained in Hindi
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The Avi Security
basic networking concepts is fundamental to a successful career in information technology. Networking technologies underlie all IT activities and a strong comprehension of the hardware and protocols used to create networks is essential to future success. In this training course, you will learn how to configure a workstation to connect to a network, analyze network traffic using a protocol analyzer, examine switch and router configurations, perform basic IPv4 addressing and subnetting, and research network security solutions. basic networking concepts is fundamental to a successful career in information technology. Networking technologies underlie all IT activities and a strong comprehension of the hardware and protocols used to create networks is essential to future success. In this training course, you will learn how to configure a workstation to connect to a network, analyze network traffic using a protocol analyzer, examine switch and router configurations, perform basic IPv4 addressing and subnetting, and research network security solutions.
Basic networking concepts is fundamental to a successful career in information technology. Networking technologies underlie all IT activities and a strong comprehension of the hardware and protocols used to create networks is essential to future success. In this training course, you will learn how to configure a workstation to connect to a network, analyze network traffic using a protocol analyzer, examine switch and router configurations, perform basic IPv4 addressing and subnetting, and research network security solutions.
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology over the course of time.The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of transport service exist, such as the transporting of isolated messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established. (As an aside, an error-free channel is completely impossible to achieve; what people really mean by this term is that the error rate is low enough to ignore in practice.)The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from the source to the destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. In the lower layers, each protocols is between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and not between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by many routers. The difference between layers 1 through 3, which are chained, and layers 4 through 7, which are end-to-end,
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Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Digital Tools and AI for Teaching Learning and Research
Network fundamental
1.
2. TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
ROLE
OBJECTIVE
FUNCTION NETWORK LAYER
NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOL
OSI MODEL
BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PROTOCOL
EX:ENTHERNET PROTOCOL
INTERNET PROTOCOL
IPv4
BEST DELIVERY
ADDRESSING
PACKET STRUCTURE
PACKET TRANSFER
GROUPING DEVICES IN NETWORK& HIERARCHICAL ADDRESSING
FUNDAMENTAL OF ROUTE,NEXT HOP,ADDRESS AND PACKET FOWARDING
PROBLEM
ROUTER
SUMMARY
3. INTRODUCTION
The protocols of the OSI model Network layer specify
addressing and processes that enable Transport layer
data to be packaged and transported. The Network
layer encapsulation allows its contents to be passed to
the destination within a network or on another
network with minimum overhead.
4. ROLE
Examining how it divides networks into groups of
hosts to manage the flow of data packets within a
network. We also consider how communication
between networks is facilitated. This communication
between networks is called routing.
5. OBJECTIVE
Identify the role of the Network layer as it describes
communication from one end device to another end
device.
Examine the most common Network layer
protocol, Internet Protocol (IP), and its features for
providing connectionless and best-effort service.
Understand the principles used to guide the division, or
grouping, of devices into networks.
Understand the hierarchical addressing of devices and how
this allows communication between networks.
Understand the fundamentals of routes, next-hop
addresses, and packet forwarding to a destination network.
6. FUNCTION OF NETWORK LAYER
Connection model
Host addressing
Message forwarding
7. NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOL
• A communications protocol is a formal description of
digital message formats and the rules for exchanging those
messages in or between computing systems and in
telecommunications.
• Protocols may include signaling, authentication and error
detection and correction capabilities.
• Communicating systems use well-defined formats for
exchanging messages. Describes the syntax, semantics, and
synchronization of communication.
8. A programming language describes the same for computations, so
there is a close analogy between protocols and programming
languages: protocols are to communications what programming
languages are to computations.
Protocol exists in Network Layer:
IPv4/IPv6, Internet Protocol
DVMRP, Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
ICMP, Internet Control Message Protocol
IGMP, Internet Group Multicast Protocol
PIM-SM, Protocol Independent Multicast Sparse Mode
PIM-DM, Protocol Independent Multicast Dense Mode
IPsec, Internet Protocol Security
IPX, Internetwork Packet Exchange
RIP, Routing Information Protocol
DDP, Datagram Delivery Protocol
The level of a sub-document determines the class it belongs to. The
sub-documents belonging to a class all provide similar functionality
and, when form follows function, have similar form.
9. The Network Layer is Layer 3 of the seven-layer OSI model of
computer networking.
The Network Layer is responsible for routing packets delivery including
routing through intermediate routers, whereas the Data Link Layer is
responsible for Media Access Control, Flow Control and Error
Checking.
The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a
destination host via one or more networks while maintaining the
quality of service functions.
10. Connection model(connectionless communication)
For example, IP is connectionless, in that a frame can travel
from a sender to a recipient without the recipient having to
send an acknowledgement.
Host addressing
Every host in the network needs to have a unique address
which determines where it is. This address will normally be
assigned from a hierarchical system.
12. BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PROTOCOL
Data formats for data exchange. In digital message bit strings are exchanged.
The bit strings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant
to the protocol. Conceptually the bit string is divided into two parts called the
header area and the data area.
Address formats for data exchange. The addresses are used to identify both the
sender and the intended receiver(s).
Address mapping. Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme
on addresses of another scheme. For instance to translate a logical IP address
specified by the application to a hardware address.
Routing. When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along
the route to the intended receiver(s) need to forward messages (instead of
discarding them) on behalf of the sender.
13. Detection of transmission errors is necessary, because no network is
error-free. Bits of the bit string become corrupted or lost.
Acknowledgements of correct reception of packets by the receiver are
usually used to prevent the sender from retransmitting the packets.
Some protocols, notably datagram protocols like the Internet Protocol
(IP), do not acknowledge.
Loss of information - timeouts and retries. Sometimes packets are lost
on the network or suffer from long delays. To cope with this, a sender
expects an acknowledgement of correct reception from the receiver
within a certain amount of time.
Direction of information flow needs to be addressed if transmissions
can only occur in one direction at a time (half-duplex links). To gain
control of the link a sender must wait until the line becomes idle and
then send a message indicating its wish to do so.
14. Sequence control. We have seen that long bitstrings are divided in
pieces, that are send on the network individually. The pieces may get
'lost' on the network or arrive out of sequence, because the pieces can
take different routes to their destination.
Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the
receiver can process the transmissions or when the network becomes
congested. Sometimes, arrangements can be made to slow down the
sender, but in many cases this is outside the control of the protocol.
Getting the data across is only part of the problem. The data received
has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the
conversation, so a protocol has to specify rules describing the context
and explaining whether the (form of the) data fits this context or not.
15. EX: ENTHERNET PROTOCOL
Ethernet was invented at Xerox PARC in the early 1970s. It has gained
widespread use on LANs and became standardized as IEEE standard
802.3.To connect to a LAN, a computer has to be equipped with an
Ethernet network interface card.
Conceptually, all stations share a single communication channel called
a shared bus. Transmissions on this channel are received by all stations
at (nearly) the same time. The hardware provides no indication to the
sender about whether the transmission was delivered and is therefore
called a best-effort delivery mechanism.
Stations wanting to transmit, wait for the channel to become free and
then start transmitting one single frame and then stop for a small
amount of time before transmitting a next frame to allow others to
transmit.
16. INTERNET PROTOCOL
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol
used for relaying datagram (packets) across an internetwork using the
Internet Protocol Suite. Responsible for routing packets across network
boundaries, it is the primary protocol that establishes the Internet.
As a consequence of this design, the Internet Protocol only provides best
effort delivery and its service can also be characterized as unreliable. In
network architectural language it is a connection-less protocol, in contrast
to so-called connection-oriented modes of transmission.
The lack of reliability allows any of the following fault events to occur:
data corruption
lost data packets
duplicate arrival
out-of-order packet delivery
17. The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing
hosts and routing datagram (packets) from a
source host to the destination host across one or
more IP networks.
For this purpose the Internet Protocol defines an
addressing system that has two functions.
Addresses identify hosts and provide a logical
location service.
18. IPv4
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision in the development
of the Internet Protocol (IP) and it is the first version of the protocol to be
widely deployed.
Together with IPv6, it is at the core of standards-based internetworking
methods of the Internet. IPv4 is still by far the most widely deployed Internet
Layer protocol. As of 2011, IPv6 deployment is still in its infancy.
IPv4 uses 32-bit (four-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to
4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, some are
reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million
addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses may simply be written in any notation expressing a 32-bit
integer value, but for human convenience, they are most often written in dot-
decimal notation, which consists of the four octets of the address expressed
separately in decimal and separated by periods.
19.
20. BEST DELIVERY
Best effort delivery describes a network service in which the network does
not provide any guarantees that data is delivered or that a user is given a
guaranteed quality of service level or a certain priority.
Conventional telephone networks are not based on best-effort communication,
but on circuit switching. During the connection phase of a new call, resources
are reserved in the telephone exchanges, or the user is informed that the call is
blocked due to lack of free capacity.
The mailman will make his "best effort" to try to deliver a message, but the
delivery may be delayed if too many letters arrive to a postal office suddenly.
The sender is not informed if a letter has been delivered successfully.
However, the best-effort paradigm is to some extent abandoned on the
Internet. Modern IP routers provide mechanisms for differentiated or
guaranteed quality of service to certain data flows, based on for example the
IntServ or DiffServ protocols.
21. ADDRESSING
It is a common misunderstanding that addresses ending with an octet of 0 or
255 can never be assigned to hosts.
In glassful addressing (now obsolete with the advent of CIDR), there are only
three possible subnet masks: Class A, 255.0.0.0 or /8; Class B, 255.255.0.0 or /16;
and Class C, 255.255.255.0 or /24.
However, this does not mean that every addresses ending in 255 cannot be used
as a host address. For example, in the case of a Class B subnet
192.168.0.0/255.255.0.0 (or 192.168.0.0/16), equivalent to the address range
192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255, the broadcast address is 192.168.255.255.
However, one can assign 192.168.1.255, 192.168.2.255, etc. (though this can cause
confusion). Also, 192.168.0.0 is the network identifier and so cannot be
assigned, but 192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, etc. can be assigned (though this can also
cause confusion).
22. PACKET STRUCTURE
Header
The fields in the header are packed with the most significant byte first (big
endian), and for the diagram and discussion, the most significant bits are
considered to come first (MSB 0 bit numbering). The most significant bit is
numbered 0, so the version field is actually found in the four most significant
bits of the first byte, for example.
Version
The first header field in an IP packet is the four-bit version field. For IPv4, this
has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4).
29. FUNDAMENTAL OF ROUTER,NEXT HOP,ADDRESS
& PACKET FOWARDING
Route assignment, route choice, or traffic assignment concerns
the selection of routes (alternative called paths) between origins and
destinations in transportation networks. It is the fourth step in the
conventional transportation forecasting model, following Trip
Generation, Destination Choice, and Mode Choice.
The zonal interchange analysis of trip distribution provides origin-
destination trip tables. Mode choice analysis tells which travelers will
use which mode.
30. PROBLEM WHEN USING MANY DEVICES IN A NETWORK
The packets are passed to the router and waiting to
be deployed.
Host doesn’t know how to deliver the data.
Because the delivery of data is done by the
gateway.
This will result in communication problems.
31. ROUTER
Process of taking a URL endpoint and decomposing it into
parameters to determine which module, controller, and
action of that controller should receive the request.
Routes may be used numerous times to create a chain or
user defined application.
A module name may be specified as the first path element.
34. ROUTING PROTOCOL
The purpose of routing protocols is to tell the
hardware between the transmitter and receiver where
to send all the pieces of a network transmission.
Routing protocol shares this information first among
immediate neighbors, and then throughout the
network.
This way, routers gain knowledge of the topology of
the network.
35. SUMMARY
Understand the role of the network layer as it function
communication from one end device to another end
device.
Explain the purpose of the Hierarchical Addressing of
device and how this allows the communication between
network.
Understand the Fundamentals of Routes, Next Hop
Addresses and Packet Forwarding