Historical evidence History of agriculture in Sri Lanka (Stage 1, 2, 3 and 4). Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture (evolution) Green Revolution and its consequences Present issues in Agriculture Climate Change GHG emission GHG mitigation strategies in the agriculture sector Carbon sequestration

1. Traditional Technology in Sri Lankan Agriculture
Course code: AS 3210
Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka,
Puliyankulama, Sri Lanka
• P.B. Dharmasena, 0777 - 613234, 0717 – 613234
• dharmasenapb@ymail.com, dharmasenapb@gmail.com
• Links to My Documents:
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/contributions
http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=pjuU1GkAAAAJ&hl=en
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC_PFqwl0OqsrxH1wTm_jZeg
Guest Lecture One – 2 hrs
Indigenous Knowledge in Agriculture in Sri Lanka: Past development of
agricultural technologies and needs for future development
At 10.30 am – 12.30 pm on 11.01.2023

2. CONTENT
• Historical evidence
• History of agriculture in Sri Lanka (Stage 1, 2, 3 and 4).
• Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture (evolution)
• Green Revolution and its consequences
• Present issues in Agriculture
• Climate Change
• GHG emission
• GHG mitigation strategies in the agriculture sector
• Carbon sequestration

3. Mahawansa Historical Records
• Begins with the arrival of Vijaya written in 450 AD by Mahanama Thero
for the period from King Vijaya to Mahasen (550 BC – 362 AC)
• Second part of Mahawansa known as Chula Wansa written in 1,100 AC
by Dhammakiththi Thero for the period from King Mahasen to
Parakramabahu (362 AC – 1,186 AC)
• Third part of Mahawansa written for the period of King Vijayabahu II to
Buwanekabahu IV (1186 AC – 1781 AC)
• Some of the subsequesnt authors of Mahavansa:
• Tibbotuvave Mahathera
• Hikkaduwe Sumangala Mahathera

4. Prince Vijaya (543–505 BC) invaded our country
• Sailors entered the country from Alli Rani
Harbour for trading
• Traders were fed by food – „rice bawl‟ irrigated
from Yodhawewa and 162 small tanks constructed
by Naga tribes before 6th Century BC
• Yodhawewa was later restored by King Dhatusena
(459-477 A.D.) and rehabilitated in the 12th
century by King Parakramabahu I (1153-1186
A.D.)
• Vijaya also came along Western coastal boarder
using NE monsoonal winds passing Alli Rani
Harbour to Kudiramalai (Thammenna)
• There were 10 regional kings (including the
Princess Kuweni ) ruled the country at that time
• Prince Vijaya killed most of them with the support
of Princess Kuweni
• That was the end of 10 kingdoms of Sri Lanka
Allirani Harbour
Kudiramalai
Yodhawewa

5. Kevesastha (Northern)
Upulwangiri (Kala Oya)
Rakungiri (Malwathu Oya)
Mahagiri (Samanala mountain area)
– Kelani, Kalu, Walawe, Mahaweli
Chalaka (Mi Oya)
Neelagiri
(Modaragam Aru) Kawasthalabha (Yan oya)
Dhumaka Kaddeera
(Deduru Oya)
Indra (Maduru Oya, Mundeni
Aru, Gal oya)
Agni (Kumbukkan Oya,
Menik Ganga, Kirindi Oya

6. Alli Rani Habour –
Trade habour,
Doric Bungalow by
Fredrick North
(1798-1805,
Pearl fishing
industry

7. • Donkeys in Mannar – brought by
traders from Ethiopia through Alli
Rani Harbor
• They bought our cattle and horses
improved in Sri Lanka

8. Tekkam anicut
Due to shortage of water
King Dhathusena (459-477
AD) built the Tekkam
anicut to divert water from
Malwathuoya river

9. History of agriculture in Sri Lanka.
Agricultural production was sufficient to sustain the
population
•Evidence:
• How they built huge dagabos and monastic complexes?
• Large irrigation systems
• Three year old scented rice (තිවස්සිකා ගන්ධ සාලී) stored in
granaries for 3 years with various layers of aromatic drugs
• South Indian kings (Soorathissa, Elara) invaded the country
due to prosperity reached by agricultural development 3rd
Century BC
• Golden age of irrigated agriculture –
• King Dutugamunu (160 BC), Walagambahu (88 BC),
Bhathikabhaya (20 BC – 9 AD), Vasabha (60 – 110 AD),
Dhathusena ( 459-477 AD)
• Rice was exported by Sri Lanka to South India (2nd Century
AD)
• Self-sufficiency in grains in ancient villages

10. Stage 1:
Traditional self-sufficient agricultural system evolved and existed
for thousands of years in Sri Lanka.
Features:
Based on natural processes, recycling of nutrients,
regeneration of natural resources.
Inputs like seeds, water, land, genetic diversity of plant species
were provided free by the nature itself.
Due attention was paid to practices like fallowing of land, non-
inversion tillage, mix-crop cultivation, selection of suitable crops
according to the land classes and climate.
History of agriculture in Sri Lanka.

11. Selection of suitable crops
Type of Chena Sinhala name Land status Crops
Cleared dense
forest
Nawa dali hena Very fertile Mustard, legumes,
vegetables
Cleared
secondary
vegetation
Ath dandu hena Fertile Legumes,
vegetables, coarse
grains
Scrubland
cleared
Landu hena Moderately
fertile
Coarse grains,
Sesame
Degraded land
cleared
Kanathu, piti
hena
Infertile Sesame, proso
millet (meneri)
Upland paddy Goda wee hena Imperfectly
drained
Paddy, vegetables

12. Stage 2:
British period, in the mid
nineteenth century (1868),
export mono crops in large
plantations such as tea, rubber,
coffee were introduced to Sri
Lanka.
Features:
Large tracts of lands cleared for
cultivation
Mono cropping
Farmers: labourers

13. Absorption Phase
Collection Phase
Utilization Phase
Major Phases of a Watershed

14. Forest cover
observed in - 1992
Absorption
Phase
Collection Phase
Utilization Phase
Utilization Phase

15. Forest cover
observed in - 2010
Absorption
Phase
Collection Phase
Utilization Phase
Utilization Phase

17. How did they
locate ancient
reservoirs?
Kantale
Huruluwewa
Minneriya
Giritale
Parakrama Samudra
Maduruoya
Mapakadawewa
Udawalawe
Kalawewa &
Balaluwewa
150 m
contour
Nachchaduwa

18. Stage 3:
Introduction of green revolution and
related technology in 1960s.
Features:
Promoting commercial agriculture
Technologies included.
• Tillage using machinery,
development of irrigation with
infrastructure facilities.
• Use of chemical fertilizer, use of
chemical pesticides, promotion of
mono crops.
• Improved varieties (HYV).

19. Stage 4:
Implementation of liberalized
economic policies in 1970s.
Features:
• Lifted restrictions on imports;
withdrawal of subsidies for
agriculture and guaranteed prices.
Abolition of farmer protective
measures.
• Privatization of seed farms.
• Government withdrawal from paddy
purchasing (dismantling the PMB).
• Abolition of the Marketing
Department.

20. • 1505 – 1640 Portuguese
• 1640 – 1796 Dutch
• 1796 – 1948 British
• 1815 (2nd March) – Kandyan Convention
• 1818 – Civil riots against British
• 1822 – Royal botanic garden
• 1830 – Plantation sector – coffee, rubber, coconut
• 1860 – Tea plantation
• 1861 – Hakgala Botanic Garden
• 1881 – The Journal of tropical Agriculturist
• 1884 – School of Agriculture, Colombo to train
improved methods of ploughing and transplanting
• 1884 – Botanical Garden Branch, Anuradhapura
• 1886 – Rehabilitation of Kalawewa reservoir
• 1893 – Flora of Ceylon (First Volume)
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

21. • A hand-book to the flora of Ceylon : containing descriptions of all the
species of flowering plants indigenous to the island, and notes on their
history, distribution, and uses : with an atlas of plates illustrating some
of the more interesting species

22. • 1894 – Planted rubber in this garden
(Botanical Garden Branch, Anuradhapura)
• 1898 – Rubber trees died due to a recorded
drought
• 1900 – Irrigation Department established
• 1901 – Anuradhapura botanic garden - closed
down
• 1902 – First experimental station at
Gannoruwa
• 1903 – Dry Zone Experimental station at
Mahailluppallama for cotton
• 1904 – Rubber at Mahailluppallama
• 1904 – Ceylon Agricultural Society, took over
the publication of the Tropical Agriculturist.
Attempted to replace chena with rotational
farming in the dry zone.
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

23. Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture
• 1907 – Coconut at
Mahailluppallama
• 1912 – Formation of
Department of Agriculture
• 1914 – Paddy experiments at
Mahailluppallama
• 1914 – Experiment Station,
Anuradhapura
• 1914 – 1918 Sisal hemp at both
sites
• 1916 – School of Tropical
Agriculture, Peradeniya

24. • 1919 – Mahailluppallama closed
down and leased (2200 acres) to
Ceylon Hemp and Produce
Company for sisal cultivation
• 1926 – Small scale field
experiments at Vavuniya,
Anuradhapura and Thissa on
economic crops to replace chena
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

26. • 1938 – Dry farming Scheme,
Kurundan Kulama
• Rotational mixed farming
• Use of simple farm implements
• „Working with farmers‟
• Seasonal Crops: cereals, cotton,
chilli, cucurbits, legumes,
vegetables
• Perannial Crops: Coconut, banana,
fruit trees (mango, orange, lime,
papaw, sapodilla, bread fruit, jak)
• 40 ha at 4 ha/ farmer
• 1 acre plot perimeter conservation
bunds
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

27. • 1945 – 1946 Broad based graded
bunds with a shallow drain
• 1949 – Increased from 40 ha to 400
ha. And three more schemes at
Relapanawa, Olukaranda and
Makalanagama
• Lessons learnt from Kurundankulama
• Conservation bunds (broad based)
disturb the surface soil layer
• Crops should be selected according
to the drainage conditions.
• Inversion tillage buries the fertile
soil layer
•1950 – Re-establishment of
Mhailluppallama
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

30. The first Green
Revolution
• In 1940‟s plant geneticists,
began using traditional
methods of cross-breeding to
create plants with desirable
traits, including
• Larger, more nutritious
seeds, fruit
• Resistance to pests and
disease
• Focused chiefly on wheat,
corn, and rice
Norman Borlaug
M.S. Swaminatha

31. Successes of Green Revolution
• In the 1960's, 70's and 80's, crop yields boosted in India, China and Latin
America. One billion deaths from starvation averted
• Lower food prices occurred globally
• If food remained scarce in these countries, it was the result of politics and
food distribution

32. Green revolution – The cold war in
agriculture
• Improved varieties
• Inorganic fertilizer
• Insecticides
• Weedicides
• Machinery use

33. Other side of the coin
•Improved varieties – high input cost, pest and
diseases, susceptible to drought, salinity etc.
•Mechanization – damage to soil environment,
soil erosion, nutrient loss, water loss, insurgence
of weeds
•Inorganic fertilizer and agro-chemicals – soil
acidity, heavy metals, micro-nutrient deficiency,
health problems etc.

34. Robert Nox - 1681
Lewis - 1884

35. New Rice varieties
Traditional Rice varieties

36. We had more than two thousand
traditional rice varieties

37. Kalu heenati kahawanu
Siyapath el Kurulu thuda
Traditional rice
Mada thawalu
Suwandal

38. Specialty of traditional rice

39. Importance:
Acid-base balance in the kidney
Protein synthesis
Production of cellular energy
Activating immune cells
For curing treatment of injuries
To produce anti-cancer
medicines
For muscle development
Ability to produce
glutamine in the
human body
Glutamic acid

40. Glycemic Index – How fast the starch is
converted to sugar
Glucose 100
Wheat flour preparations 75-95
Rice
Bg 450 67
Bg 94-1 68
Suwandel 45

41. Variety type Protein (%) Fe (%)
Traditional 10.6- 13.3 2.2-3.4
Imprved (new) 6.4-10.0 1.7-2.0
Anti-oxidant
property (mmol
Trolox/100 g)
Traditional
rice
Improved
rice
Total 8.01 -17.88 1.84 - 1.61
Average 14.23 1.7
Type Pro antho
cyanidin
(mg/g)
Phenolic acids
(mg/g)
Traditional 11.95 - 21.77 16.47- 40.43
Improved nil 8.12- 8.56

42. New Findings
• Agro-chemicals including
Glyphosate contain As and other
heavy metals.
• Pro-anthocyanidins can remove
heavy metals from the human body
• Proanthocyanidins are present in
rice like pachcha perumal, kalu
heenati, madathawalu etc.
• Proanthocyanidins are absent in
samba and nadu available in the
market

44. Cancer patients admitted to
hospitals
• 2010 – 16,963
• 2012 – 25,452
• 2013 – 25,515
• 2014 – 26,300 (14,000 died)
• 2020 – 75,000
Diabetic patients:
20 % in urban areas
8 % in rural areas
15 – 20% school children

46. Side effects of successes of Green Revolution
• Uneven development: not
all countries and farmers
benefited equally
• Displacement of small
farmers and forced change
of livelihoods
• Increased dependency of
small farmers on global
markets
• Dependency upon fossil
fuels
• Increased water and
pesticide use
• Changes in crop diversity
and plant nutritional
content

47. Displacement of small farmers
• With Green Revolution, shift to
monoculture export crops grown
on large plantations
• Replaced diverse types of traditional
agriculture
• Export crops replaced food crops
• Land became concentrated with large
landholders who can afford land and the
cost of inputs
• Subsequent neoliberal (new liberal)
economics and free trade forced small
farmers to participate in global markets
often to their detriment.

48. Greater dependency on fossil fuels for:
• Fertilizer production
• Production of pesticides and herbicides
• Operation of tractors and farm equipment

49. Price of food tied to price of fuel
Food price
Oil price

50. Increased pesticide use

51. Agro-chemicals

52. Name of
fungicide
Commercial
names
Banned in USA Reason
Captan 3 1994 Cancer,
Mancozeb 21 1992 Cancer, stunt
growth, pregnancy
problem, hormone
deficiency
Maneb 3 1985 Cancer, stunt
growth, pregnancy
problem, hormone
deficiency
Increased pesticide use - Fungicides

53. Name of
insecticide
Trade
names
Banned in
USA
Reason
Carbaryl 04 1987 Cancer, nervous breakdown,
water pollution
Carbofuran 14 1989 Cancer, nervous breakdown,
water pollution, stunt growth,
pregnancy problem
Chloropyrifos 35 1985 Cancer, water pollution, stunt
growth, pregnancy problem
Diazinon 11 1980 Nervous breakdown
Fenobucarb 14 Cancer, water pollution
Phenthoate 13 Cancer, stunt growth,
pregnancy problem
Increased pesticide use – Insecticides

54. Name of
weedicide
Trade
names
Banned in
USA
Reason
2,4 - D 5 1984 Cancer, nervous breakdown, water
pollution
Alachlor 6 - Cancer, nervous breakdown, water
pollution, stunt growth, pregnancy
problem
Diuron 11 1987 Cancer, pregnancy problem, water
pollution
Glyphosate 38 ? nervous breakdown, Kidney failure
MCPA 35 1984 Cancer, water pollution
Oxadiazon 1 - Cancer, stunt growth, pregnancy problem
Paraquat 3 1986 ??
Propanil 27 1982 Cancer, stunt growth, pregnancy problem
Increased pesticide use - Weedicides

55. Chronic Kidney Disease map

56. Island of Widows

57. Island of Widows

58. Use of Agro-chemicals in Sugar Cane
Farms: an example from Nicaragua
• San Antonio Sugar Mill of
Nicaragua Sugar Estates Ltd.
• 3251 died from Chronic Renal
Insufficiency (CRI) up to 22
March 2009
• 2244 died during 2005 - 2009
• Pesticides used: Hexacinone,
Diuron, Tebuthiuron, 2,4-D,
Glyphosate, Ametryn,
Paraquat, Endosulfan, MCPA
……………

59. What brought Kidney disease ?
Study conducted - March 01,
2014
• Hard water contains metals
like Ca, Mg, Sr, Fe etc.
• Roundup, or glyphosate,
becomes highly toxic to the
kidney once mixed with
“hard water”
• Glyphosate half-life of
around 47 days in soil can
increase up to 22 years after
forming “strong complexes
with metal ions.”

60. Glyphosate
Cd++
Fe+++

61. Propanil
Cd++
Fe+++
C9H9Cl2NO
Amino group
Chloral group
Carbonyl group

62. Chlorpyrifos
Cd++
Fe+++
C9H11Cl3NO3PS
Chloral group
Ethyl group
Amide group

63. Carbaryl
Cd++
Fe+++
Amide group
Carboxylic
group

64. Renal failure death rate
Corn and Soy planted
Glyphosate applied

65. What are the present issues in Agriculture?
• Ineffective labour force

66. Goals of Agriculture Policy to achieve by 2030
1.Double the resource-productivity (compared to 2020
estimates) by adhering to sustainable and eco-friendly
agriculture practices
2.Double the economic profitability of farmers/agri-
producers (compared to estimates of 2020)
3.Increase the contribution of the Agri-Food System up to
15% of the National Economy
4.Increase the adoption of technology developed locally
along the agri-food value chain, by a minimum of 50%
from the present status
5.Increase the high quality and high yielding seed and
planting material production locally by 50% of the national
requirement
What are the present issues in Agriculture?
Policy Issues - Not the policy but the implementation

67. Goals of Agriculture Policy to achieve by 2030
7.Supply safe and quality food and feed in compliance with
food and feed control regulations of the country
8.Establish a government-regulated food and feed control
system supporting certification, standardization, and other
logistics
9.Establish farmer/agri-producer groups with Agri-
entrepreneurship capacity, coupled with efficient market
systems
10.Establish a constituted role and mandatory participation of
farmers/agri-producers in the process of decision-making
11.Build an agri-food system in Sri Lanka that is resilient to
climatic and other disasters
12.Establish a system of transparent, accountable, responsible
and participatory governance is established for decision
making

68. • Climate change
The Sri Lankan agricultural sector has also been experiencing
the effects of changing climate and natural disasters and
being the 2nd in the Global Climate Risk Index. This has,
however, given an incentive for the farmers to shift towards
climate smart agriculture. In line with this emerging trend,
Government adopted many measures to modernize the
agricultural sector with support from donor agencies.
What are the present issues in Agriculture?
Lets Look at this in detail

69. Changes of weather fronts
– dry regions become more dry
• drought frequency may increase - delayed
SWM and short duration of SWM
• intensity of drought may increase & long
dry spells in wet season
• marked increase in inter annual, seasonal
variability
Increasing evapo-transpiration
- high water loss from open water bodies
– enhance the drought condition
• minor tank cascades in Sri Lanka  high
(surface area/depth) ratio hence more
vulnerable
Impacts of Rising Temperature…

70. Impacts of Changing Rainfall Regime…
High variability in seasonal rainfall
– high variability of
monsoons
– strong, persistent and
frequent El Nino events
– Intense rains
strong tendency for above
normal rainfall in SIM
(Oct-Nov) in El Nino years
- Increased frequency of floods and
droughts affect
– agriculture
– water resources
– infrastructure

71. • Problem of soil erosion
– steep slopes are highly vulnerable
– siltation of reservoirs
Polgolla - 44% silted by 1988 (12 years after its
commissioning) - now 2.8% per year
Rantambe - 4.3 % per year (by now 54%) – Uma Oya
Victoria - 0.0 8% per year
Minor tanks - 2.4% per year
- land degradation –marginal lands
Soil productivity reduces – Mid country tea lands
Average soil erosion in Upper Mahaweli - 115 mt/ha/yr
(soil formation 1cm  100 - 400 years)
Changing Rainfall Regime…

72. Changing Rainfall Regime…
• High intense rains
• if daily RF exceeds 200
mm/day
• high probability for land
slides in prone areas
• NBRO estimates
• 12,500 ha are vulnerable
to land slides

73. Impacts of Sea Level Rise...
• In the coastal zone of Sri
Lanka
– Approx. 24% of the land
area and 32% of the
population
– 65% of urbanized land
area
– 80% tourism
– 65 % industrial out put
– commercial ports and
fishery harbors
– principal road and rail
infrastructure
– Important eco-systems

74. Needs for Future Development – Our
Challenge is Climate Change
• Reduce the impact of climate change on vulnerable communities
• It was suggested that Sri Lanka should increase:
• Non-agriculture jobs by 30 percent;
• Enhance the level of education: and
• Reduce the time to reach the market.

75. Green House Gases (GHG)
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) - Fossil fuel use is the
primary source of CO2.
CO2 can also be emitted from direct human-
induced impacts on forestry and other land use,
such as through deforestation, land clearing for
agriculture, and degradation of soils.
Methane (CH4) - Agricultural activities, waste
management, energy use, and biomass burning
all contribute to CH4 emissions.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) - Agricultural activities,
such as fertilizer use, are the primary source of
N2O emissions. Fossil fuel combustion also
generates N2O.
Fluorinated gases (F-gases) - Industrial
processes, refrigeration, and the use of a variety
of consumer products contribute to emissions
of F-gases, which include hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6).

76. GHG emissions in Sri Lanka - 2021

77. Enteric
fermentation
(26.6%)
Manure
Management
(3.9 %)
Cultivation of
Organic soils
(16.1 %)
Rice
Cultivation
(52.4 %)
Burning of Crop
Residues(1.0 %)
GHG emission from Agriculture in Sri Lanka
(2015)

78. Main GHGs from Agriculture
•Manure - N2O and CH4.
•Rice cultivation - CH4.
•Enteric fermentation - CH4.
•Burning of Crop Residues - CO2 and N2O
•Cultivation of Organic soils - CH4

79. Rice cultivation (CH4)
Enteric fermentation (CH4)
N2O emission (direct and
indirect)

80. Emission of CH4 from Agriculture in Sri Lanka
Source: The World Bank Data

81. Emission of N2O from Agriculture in Sri Lanka
Year
Source: The World Bank Data
1000
MT
CO
2
eq
3000
2900
2800
2700
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

82. Emission of CO2 from Agriculture in Sri Lanka
1000
MT
CO
2
eq
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50

83. Net zero Concept
Net zero Concept refers to a state in which the greenhouse gases
going into the atmosphere are balanced by removal out of the
atmosphere. The term net zero is important because – for CO2 at least
– this is the state at which global warming stops. The Paris Agreement
underlines the need for net zero.

84. Agriculture Sector
84

85. GHG Mitigation Measures
• Methane reduction
• Improve feed quality, extend lactation periods of dairy cows, use more
efficient breeds, improve reproductive performance, and increase rates
of gain in beef animals so they reach the market sooner.
• Nitrous oxide reduction –
• Adjust fertilizer rates to coincide with plant needs, place fertilizer near
plant roots (but not too deep in the soil), apply fertilizer several times
each year, rather than only once using slow-release forms
• Greater use of legumes as a nitrogen source, use of cover crops (sown
between successive crops) to remove excess available nitrogen, avoiding
use of summer fallow (leaving the land unplanted, with no crop nitrogen
uptake, for a season) and adjusting tillage intensity (sometimes, but not
always, no-till practices can reduce emissions)

86. GHG Mitigation Measures
• Alternatives to Chemical fertilizer
• Integration with organic fertilizers (Organic Farming)
• Use alternatives: farmyard manure, manure, and compost
• Promote slow/controlled N releasing fertilizers and increasing
their effectiveness
• Deep placement and reduction of frequency of application of N
fertilizer,
• Use of N transformation inhibitors to scale back the hydrolysis of
urea to ammonium by soil urease enzyme.
• Use of nitrification inhibitors to scale back accumulation of nitrate
also will help to reduce GHG emissions.

87. GHG Mitigation Measures
• Emission from enteric fermentation –Rice straw - Rice has low
nutrient properties, low bulk density and not suitable for fertilizer
due to a high C: N ratio. Use as a fuel
• Organic farming
• Ever-green agro-ecosystem concept – Agro-forestry
• Biochar as a suitable soil amendment that can increase soil fertility.
• Conservation farming - reduced tillage, contour farming, terracing,
and no-tillage

88. Mitigation measures in livestock farming
• Feeding efficiency improvement has been found to reduce methane
emission and increase milk production.
• Exogenous fibrolytic enzymes cellulose and xylanase supplemented with
Guinea grass and rice straw. From this, Enteric methane production as a
percentage for rumen gas production reduced numerically.
• Adaptive measures on livestock housing, mainly to tackle high
temperatures, are introduced and are successful operational within the
country.

89. Mitigation measures in livestock farming
• Warm climate does not allow temperate breeds to perform well, but the
local breeds adapted to those conditions and produce less milk.
• Mid and upcountry of Sri Lanka have a favorable climate for top-producing
animals, but land availability is low for livestock farming. Therefore, the
dairying had to be moved to the Intermediate and Dry Zones of the country.
Because more land is out there for livestock farming within the Intermediate
and Dry Zones.
• There is a way to construct farmhouses by tackling high heat. To
accommodate more air movement, most farms consider well-ventilated,
high roof sheds, and a few have introduced cooling and fogging systems.
These farms having temperate breeds are located in hot and humid places
like Hambantota in the southern province of the country, and have proven to
achieve success.
• Improved cattle breeds are typically given higher quality, concentrate feed,
mostly consisting of coconut cake and rice bran, and that they have higher
digestive efficiencies with reduced CH4 emissions.

90. Mitigation measures of livestock Methane
emission
• Supplementation with fodder trees, rice straw, and low-cost
concentrate. – Here, lower CH4 observed with legumes is attributed
to lower fiber content and faster rate of passage of feed through the
rumen; thus, intakes are higher with legume forages.
• Use of total mixed ration – improves productivity and reduces
methane emissions
• Supplementation of forage diet with Gliricidia blocks- Promotes high
dry matter intake and have a faster rate of passage through the rumen
and reduction of CH4
• Animal comfort (heat stress management)- Enhanced animal
productivity and reduced GHG emission intensity.
• Low-quality forage including grasses causes higher amounts of CH4
emission, and most of the indigenous/local cattle and buffaloes in Sri
Lanka feed on low-quality grasses, straw, and other crop residues.

91. Increased Carbon Sequestration
• Reduction in tillage;
• Restoring degraded land, improving pasture management;
• Reducing fallow periods;
• Adding animal manures to the soil;
• Crop residue management;
• Using legumes and/or grasses in crop rotations;
• Converting marginal crop land to perennial grass or trees;
• Using rotational grazing and high-intensity/short duration
grazing;
• Planting shrubs and trees as shelterbelts;
• Restoring wetlands;

92. Targets for Carbon Stock Improvement in Home Gardens