history

1. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE
Class I

2. WHY THIS COURSE?
• Agriculture is important for India
• 62% population depend on agriculture
• Contribution to GDP going down
• TFP had been declining but now recovering
• NSS Survey indicates 44% farmers want to quit farming
• Investment in ag. R&D declining
• Youth not attracted to agriculture
• Situation likely to be alarming after 2025
• New generation faces a big challenge
• IARI students: Good in subject matter, poor in other sub.

3. Origin of Agriculture
• Modern man (Homo sapiens) believed to have evolved
from Homo erectus- 135,000-200,000 yrs ago
• Most of this period lived in Nomadic existence in forest
as hunters & gatherers of food
• Process of domestication-10,000 yrs ago
• Sign of plant cultivation-8th-7th millennium BC
• Archaeological remains-wheat, barley, pea, lentils etc-
near East- spread to Europe, West Asia & Nile valley
• More sp. –domesticated
• What motivated them to adopt: hunting to settled agri.?
• People on diversified diet healthier than farmers

4. FOOD & AGRICULTURE
• Food – an essential need
• Agriculture- prime source for food
• History of agri.- co-terminus with civilization
• History of Indian agri.- complicated &
controversial
• Absence of literary text for early period
• Lit. available – post Gupta or early medieval
era

5. Agriculture in India
• Earliest source- Arthashastra of Kautilya
– Agri. is way of life, a philosophy & a culture
– Agri. & herding under Revenue Admn.
– Characterized by archaelogical evidences
1. Vindhya-Ganga region
2. North-west of Indian subcontinent
– Hunting-gathering in late Mesolithic period to
– Domestication of animals and cultivation of
plants- 7-6th millenium BC

6. Agriculture in India
• Indian subcontinent had 2 centres of farming of
cereals :
– North-west with barley-wheat complex (Mehrgarh)
– Vindhya-Ganga region for rice: latter is earlier than
former
Domestication of rice is found at Atranjikher & Lal Qila
(1200-1500 BC)
Rice-wheat-barley-legume agri. Established in Narhan
& Imlikhurd by the end of 3rd millennium
Two crop a year started around this period

7. Agriculture in India
• Millets of African origin
-Introduced in India in 3rd millennium BC
-Associated with Harappan culture (2,500-2,000 BC)
-Came to middle Ganga plains by 1800 BC
• Border land of Afghanistan-
- Domestication of animals and plants
– Symbiotic development of sedentary agri. & pastoral
nomadism- quite common in hills

8. Agriculture in India
• Indus civilization- Well provided with
development of Agri & animal husbandry
– Higher precipitation
– Irrigation
– Cultivation of rice, wheat & barley
– Use of chem. Fertilizers (Gypsum & CaSO4)
– Raising two crops a year

9. Agriculture in India
• Sixth century BC to 6TH century AD-Variety of
sources:
-Pali, Sangam, Sanskrit
-Kautilya’s Arthsastra & Dharmsastra
– Classification of land
– Irrigation
– Export of items-sugar
– Taxes &
– Medicinal & aromatic plants

10. Agriculture in India
• Early medieval Period (600 AD to 1200 AD)
– Agrarian structure
– New type of tools & technology
– Regional agri. –South India, Bengal & Gujarat
British Period :
-Initialy concerned with development
- Ignored agriculture
-Led to Bengal Famine

11. Origin of Agriculture- Hypothesis
• Several hypotheses but debate continues as none
of them wholly satisfactory:
– Climate change- ice age-11,000 yrs ago- favourable
environment for farming
– Population pressure
– Resource concentration from desertification
– Land ownership
– Natural selection
Greg Wadley & Angus Martin (1993)- cereals and milk
contain ‘Exorphins’- drug like addictive properties

12. Origin of Agriculture
• Origin of agri. Can’t be because of particular
invention
• Why it took so long to settle and cultivate?
• Gifted individuals – hunting can’t go forever,
let’s change- is it better way of life?
• Change is not easy to humans- discarding old
and adopting new, nevertheless
• Change is difficult but change is must for
progress

13. Domestication
• First domestication to modern crop production: wild
sp. –HYVs – MVs- through selection
– Grain size, colour, tolerance to drought, disease and insect
pests
– Creation of agrobiodiversity
– Movement with people-
– land races were created with variability
– Natural and human selection for countless generations
– Supported nearly 1 billion people in early 19th century
Hybridization and heredity- Mendel- modern crops

14. Crop Nutrition, Production and
Protection
• Application of chemical fertilizer in early 20th century
• Humus-the main source of nutrition
• Understanding of photosynthesis came much later
• Pest management- balanced ecosystem- 1200 BC botanical
pesticidesused in China
• Dams on river Nile in Egypt, Euphrattes and Tigris in
Mesopotamia- Iraq
• Irrigation practices- Mesopotamians evolved sophisticated
irrigation system
• Dams in Asia- Cauvery river in 1900 by Chola king
• Farm implements- scratch plough –moldboard, sickles,
spades and hoes

15. Modern Agriculture
• Till 18th century- traditional way
• Scientific discoveries helped in modernization
– Origin of Species – Darwin in 1859
– Mendel’s law of inheritance - 1869- 1900
– Leibig’s discovery in 1840 killed humus theory–
chemical fertilizers industry in 1894
– Steam engine in 1858
VISIT AGRICULTURE SCIENCE MUSEUM in NASC

16. Trends in food grain production in India
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Yield
Area
and
Production
Area in m.ha Productionin m.t Yield in kg/ha
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area X0.25
Popln.400 M-1.2B
1960-61- 82.02 MT-710kg/ha
1965-66- 72.35 MT-629kg/ha
1973-74-104.67 MT-827kg/ha

17. Transformation of Agriculture
Traditional to Modern

18. Triggers of Growth
• Science of Heredity-
– Mendel :1866- 1900
• Plant nutrient- artificial fertilizers
– Liebig : 1840
• Pest Management
– Bordaux mixt. in early 20th century
• Irrigation –
– Early yrs. of 20th century
• Mechanization-
– Charles Hart & Charles Parr – Tractor in 1902

19. Traditional V/s Modern Agriculture
• Traditional
– Small farm
– Polyculture
– Heterogenous
germplasm
– Little fertilizers &
chemicals
– Minimum tillage
– Varying period for fallow
• Modern
– Large & small farms
– Monoculture
– Uniform
varieties/hybrids
– Extensive use of
fert/chem.
– Appropriate/timely
tillage
– Intensive land use

20. Triggers of Growth
• Science of heredity- Mendel 1866, 1900
– Demolished theories of inheritance
– Concept of genes
– Quantitative inheritance
• Chemical fertilizers
– Humus theory demolished- C bulk of dry matter from humus
– Photosynthesis – CO2 + H2O = (CH2O) + O2
– Liebig 1840- C from atmospheric CO2
– Liebig’s patented manure- first inorganic fertilizers

21. Triggers of Growth
– Modern fert. Industry-Liebig 1894- Phosphate, lime, magnesia
& potash
– Direct synthesis of Ammonia from N2 and H2 in Germany by
Frit Harber in 1913- Nobel Prize in Chemistry
– P form TSP from Phosphoric acid, 1st started in Germany in
1870s
– K from KCl – Murate of Potash- Germany, Russia, US, Cnada
– Global prodn- 100 million tonnes Nutrient mining- partial
replenishment
– China- the largest producer of N fert. Followed by US & India
– Declining TFP- 18/28 MT. (gap of 10 MT fertilizer)
– Balanced fert. Application - NPK & micronutrients- 4:2:1
– Imbalanced application- leads to toxicity

22. Triggers of Growth
• Pest Management
– Irish famine-1840- 1 million died- P. infestans
– Bordeaux distt.- mixture - CuSO4 +lime
– Chinese – botanical pesticides
Organic pesticides
– DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller at Geigy in Basel- Colarado potato beetle
– Killed mosquitoes- saved thousands of lives
– Most widely used
– Organophosphorus compounds
– Carbamates
– Synthetic pyrethroids
– Sulphonyl ureas
Widespread use
Developed countries- 0.49 kg/ha in 1961 to 1.30 kg/ha 2000
Developing countries-late starters- 0.66 in 1990- 1.02 kg/ha in 2000
Pesticide residues
IPM

23. Irrigation
• Water availability
• Water demand
• Gravity & Arch dams
• Increasing WUE
– sprinkler
– drip
– micro irrigation

24. State-wise potential and actual area under micro-
irrigation ( Area in 000 ha )
States Drip Sprinkler Total
Potential Actual
%
Potential Actual
%
Potential Actual
%
Andhra
Pradesh
730 50 387 52 1117 51
Gujarat 1599 11 1679 8 3278 9
Haryana 398 2 1992 26 2390 22
Karnataka 745 24 697 33 1442 28
Maharashtra 1116 43 1598 13 2714 26
Rajasthan 727 2 4931 14 5658 13
Tamil Nadu 544 24 158 17 702 23
UP 2,207 0.48 8582 0.12 10789 0.20
All India 11659 12 30578 8 42237 9
Total area under MI is currently 3.87 million ha against estimated potential of 42 million ha
Major crops-field crops (cotton, groundnut, sugarcane) to vegetables and fruits (banana,
papaya, mango, grapes) and plantation crops
Indian
Agricultural
Research
Institute

25. Mechanization
• Early yrs of 20th century in US
– 38% people engaged in Agri.
– 3-4% today
India:
-1950- 8,000 tractors
-2001-2.61 million machines
-largest producer of tractor 400,000 units in 2009-10
-6,25,000 current yr. 2014
– combines
Modern Agriculture:
Seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, chemicals, machines = Led to increased
output

26. Impact of Modern Agriculture
• Output of US agri. Doubled during 1910-1970
– Scientific knowledge/technology
– Land grant Universities
• Resesrch
• Education
• Extension
• European agriculture
– Wheat yields-doubled in UK
• New varieties
• Improved agronomy
• Modern farm inputs

27. Dr. S. Raman, New Delhi Winter School,
20/3/09
Fresh Water Resources – 4 %
Land – 2.3 %
Population – 16 %
Rainfall – 1170 mm
Resources and Liabilities
Past and Projected Water Demand
XXXXXXXXXXXX

28. Some Success Stories
• Maize
• Potato
• Cotton
• Soybean

30. Trends in food grain production in India
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Yield
Area
and
Production
Area in m.ha Productionin m.t Yield in kg/ha
Production X5
Productivity X3
Area X0.25
1960-61-82.02 MT-710kg/ha
1965-66-72.35 MT-629kg/ha
1973-74-104.6 MT-827kg/ha
2010-11-241.5 MT-1921kg/ha

31. Production and productivity of rice in India
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1950-51
1960-61
1970-71
1980-81
1990-91
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10
2010-11
Area
(million
ha/Production
(million
tonnes)
Area (million ha) Production (million tonnes) Yield(tonne/ha)
Yield
(ton/ha)
Prodn. X5
Yield x7
Area x.3

32. Production and Productivity of Wheat in India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3 1950-51: 6.5 MT-663 kg/ha
1960-61: 11 MT- 851 kg/ha
1963-64 : 730 kg/ha
1965-66: 10.4 MT-827kg/ha
1970-71: 21.8 MT-1172kg/ha

33. Production and productivity of maize in India
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
Area
(million
ha/Production
(million
tonnes)
Area (million ha) Production (million tonnes) Yield(tonne/ha)
Yield
(ton/ha)
Prodn. x12
Yield x4
Area x3

35. Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
35

37. 0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Productivity
Area/Production
Area m ha Production m t Productivity kg/ha Linear (Productivity kg/ha)
Year Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
% share in
oilseeds area
% share in
oilseeds
production
1970-71 0.032 0.014 0.426 0.19 0.14
1980-81 0.61 0.44 0.728 3.46 4.69
1990-91 2.56 2.60 1.015 10.60 13.97
2000-01 6.42 5.27 0.822 27.61 28.64
2010-11 9.60 12.74 1.327 35.27 39.22
2011-12 10.18 12.28 1.207 38.50 40.92
2012-13 10.70 14.67 1.37 40.29 42.80
37
Area, Production and Productivity in India
334 1050 3.2

38. Area, Production and Productivity of Soybean
around the World
Country Area
(m ha)
Production
(m t)
Yield
(t/ha)
USA 30.91 91.42 2.96
Brazil 23.50 69.00 2.94
Argentina 18.60 54.50 2.93
China 9.19 14.98 1.63
India 10.70 IV 14.5 V 1.37 (40%)
Paraguay 2.68 7.20 2.69
World 102.17 260.85 2.55
38
Source: USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service-www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdgetreport.

39. GREEN REVOLUTION
BREAKTHROUGH IN WHEAT IMPROVEMENT
WHY MODERNIZATION OF
AGRICULTURE?
Class III

40. Population Growth
• 1 M yrs or more- 1st 8 Million people in 8,000 BC
• 10,000 yrs. – 1st 1,000 M by 1830
• 100 yrs - 2nd 1,000 M by 1930
• 30 yrs. - 3rd 1,000 M by 1960
• 15 yrs. - 4th 1,000 M by 1975
• 25 yrs. - 6 billion by early 21st century
• 2011 - 7 billion Oct. (6.928 b on July 01)
• 2025 - 9.2 billion

41. Global Population Explosion
First 4 million years
1950-1985
1985-2050
+ 4.5 bn ?
+ 2.5 bn
2.5 bn
Current: >7 billion
Poor: 1 billion (240 m in India)
Underweight Children:
Severely: 180 million
Chronically: 800 million
Vitamin A deficient: 200 million
Pregnant Women:
Anemia: 400 million
1/8 persons hungry
Present Concerns:
Source - Paroda, 2011

42. 1951
1991
2001
846 mn
548 mn
361 mn
1028 mn
1971
India’s Population
2011
2050
1500 mn (expected)
1210 mn

43. Decennial Growth in Human
Population
• Graph
• Ship-to-mouth
• Life boat
• Paddock Brothers’ Famine 1975

44. Other Factors
Developed Vs developing
• Increased longevity
Antibiotics in 1950s:
Penicillin
Chloromycetin
• Industrial Revolution- strong production &
distribution base for
• Fert, pesticides, farm machinery
Knowledge & technology
Policy & investment
Developing countries followed the suit

45. Wheat Improvement in India
• Domesticated in West Asia
• Selection of land races by generations of farmers
• Scientific breeding in early 20th century
• North America, Europe, Russia, Japan & Australia
• India- 1905 at IARI- Pure line selection
• 1930-40 Hybridization – grain quality & disease
resistance- Dr. BP Pal & Assoc. –Leaders

46. Wheat Improvement in India-cont.
• Started at IARI in 1905- Dr. BP Pal & associates-yield, quality
& disease resistance
• NP 700 & NP 800 series
• NP 823- Early Maturing, good quality suitable for rainfed
• NP 824- Good yield in plains & lower hills
• NP 809- Resistant to 3 rusts & loose smut through
hybridization
• Ch. Ram Dhan & SM Sikka at Govt. Agri. College & Research
Instt. Lyallpur (faislabad) developed C series wheat in Punjab - yield
3-4 t/ha
• 1947 av. Yield 700kg/ha – remained same for the last 40
yrs.

47. Low Productivity of Indian Wheat
Remedy of the Malady

48. Wheat Yield in India
______________________________________
Year Yield
______________________________________
• 1950-51 :6.46 MT 663 kg/ha
• 1960-61 : 11 MT 851 kg/ha
• 1963-64 734 kg/ha
• 1965-66: 10.4 MT- 827kg/ha
• 1970-71: 21.8 MT- 1172kg/ha
• Increase in yield not consistent

49. Wheat improvement - Yield barrier
• 20 varieties grown over 80 yrs. were analyzed (Kulshrestha and Jain , 1981)
-1910-60 Tall -2 per decade for six deacdes-12
-1970-80 Dwarf -4 per decade-8
Evaluated for:
-grain yield
-HI
-# effective tillers/sq. m
-plant ht.
-grain wt
-total dry matter
Tall var. showed significant differences for 1st 4 characters but did not show
significant difference in biol. yield & grain. Wt
K13 (Kanpur) and NP 165(IARI) showed significant but small improvement in yield
1940s, 50s & 60s no difference in grain yield despite concerted efforts
Significant difference recorded in var. of 1970s & 80s
Indian breeders struggled to break yield barrier over 60 yrs. But did not succeed

50. Wheat Improvement
Response to fertilizer
• Inadequate availability
• Lack of infrastructure for prodn. & distribution
• Attempt made to develop varieties for high soil fertility
• Tall varieties (115 cm or more) lodged at high doses
beyond 40 Kg/ ha Nitrogen
• Need for breeding stiff strawed, lodging resistant
coupled with disease resistance & quality
• SP Kohli-Sr. wheat Breeder in early 1960s initiated work
for identifying sources of dwarfing with stiff straw but
rust resistance was top priority

51. Dwarf Wheat
• IARI germplasm collection screened- none of
them dwarf except 3 Italian varieties
• Funo
• Falchetto
• Mara
Lodging resistant but susceptible to RUST- less used in
breeding
rht8 gene for reduced plant height –identified in these
varieties
Italians developed famous ARDITO & released in 1916
Was widely grown in Eastern Europe & South America

52. Dwarf Varieties
HYV winter wheat –
Russian Scientist -PP Lukyanenko developed:
– Bezostya
– Kavkag &
– Avrora
Great Britain
Little Joss (142 cm.) in 1908
Holdfast (126 cm.) in 1935
Capelle Desperz (110 cm) in 1935
Marris Huntman (106 cm) in 1972
Armada (97 cm) in 1978
USA
Honor (120 cm) in 1920
Eroga (85 cm.) in 1973
Did not havea robust source for dwarfing but succeeded in improving
wheat yield over a long period in Western world

53. Dwarf Winter Wheat
• Indian wheat breeders struggling to develop dwarf
wheat varieties, scientists in Japan had found
solution way back in 1930
– Daruma- a land race- origin remains obscure – 1873
– Daruma- registered as variety in 1900
– Kihara & assoc. showed bread wheat – 3 sets of chr. in 1940s
Evolution of NORIN 10:
-Shiro(white) Daruma
-Aka (red) Daruma
Shiro Daruma X Glassy Fultz- an American wheat at Central
Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishinghara & released Fultz Daruma
Fultz Daruma X Turky Red at Ehime Prefectual Experiment Station
in 1925- The advance progeny of this cross yielded NORIN
10 in 1932. It was released in Oct. 1935 by Inazuka

54. Dwarf Spring Wheat
Norin 10- semidwarf winter wheat height of 52-55 cm
 It received its dwarfing gene from Daruma- land race
selected by Japanese farmers
• Standard source of dwarfing gene throughout world
• Free from adverse effects on expression of yield
contributing characters when placed in right genetic
background
• Short internodes reduced plant height without
reducing length of earhead, # of spike bearing tillers,
& # of grains/spike

56. Norin 10 In USA
• Following occupation of Japan in 1945- group of scientists sent from
USA to Japan
• SC Salmon- Adviesr to USDA – sent Norin 10 to US
• USDA distributed to wheat breeders-
– Orville A. Vogel of Washington Agri. Exp. Stn., WSU, Pullman evolved 1st
semidwarf, HYV carrying Norin 10 outside Japan
– The variety Gaines gave a record yield of 14.5 t/ha under high fertility with
large dose of fertilizers
– Gaines, however, showed high proportion of sterile florets
– Gaines crossed with Brevor- sterility was transferred to Norin 10-Brevor
hybrid
– Further selections led to Breeding lines free from sterility
– Selection 14 crossed with 3 American varieties to introduce disease resistant
genes
– Gaines was 85 cm, Brevor 120 cm and Selection 146 cm height
– Gaines showed no lodging but Brevor showed 20% lodging
– Gaines – a winter wheat and could not be grown in subtropical conditions

57. Mexican Wheat
• Norman Borlaug working at CIMMYT, Mexico got
Norin 10-Brevor hybrid lines from Vogel
– 1st few crosses with elite Mexical lines – not successful due to rust
– Successful crosses showed sterile florets, shrivelled grains, poor quality &
susceptibility to rust
– Sustained efforts for next 6 yrs- winter & spring gene pools different &
showed considerable genetic divergence
– Now Borlaug had Norin 10 in spring wheat background
• Pitic 62 Inia 66
• Penjamo 62 Tobari 66
• Sonora 63 Ciano 67
• Sonora 64 Norteno 67
• Mayo 64 Cietoe Coros
• Lerma Rojo 64 in 1966

58. Multilocation Evaluation

59. Mexican Wheat in India
• Rabi 1961-62 -Observational Nursery from USDA
• Summer 1962 -Multiplication at Wellington
• Rabi 1962-63 -Demonstration at IARI farm
Invitation to Borlaug to visit India & visits in March 1963
• Rabi 1963-64 -Multilocation Trial 4 places
• Rabi 1964-65 -Large Multilocation trails-155 places
• 1965- Two Mexican Lines Sonora 64 & Lerma Roho 64 A
Released for Commercial cultivation by CVRC (CSCSNRV)

60. Area, Production and Productivity of Wheat in
India
Area X 2.5
Prodn.x 8.5
Prody x3

61. Reduction in yield gap has been the main approach for
increasing wheat production
Source: IARI/ ICAR network
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Wheat
yield,
t/ha
Potential yield
Actual yield

65. Bt Cotton in India
Area covered during 2010 : 8.4 m ha
66

66. Incidence of malnutrition among children (< 3
years)

67. Wide inter-regional variations in yield
State Foodgrain yield, 2006-07
(t/ha)
1. Punjab 4.0
2 Tamil Nadu 2.6
3 West Bengal 2.5
4 Uttar Pradesh 2.1
5 Bihar 1.7
6 Orissa 1.4
7 Madhya Pradesh 1.2
 Focus on high potential eastern & central region for
immediate yield gains

68. Per capita net availability of foodgrains
400
420
440
460
480
500
520
1971 1981 1991 2000 2007 2008
(g/capita/day)