This paper presented the improvement in the performance of the digital sinusoidal signal generator, which was implemented in FPGA, by optimizing the usage of the available memory onboard. The sine wave was generated by using a Lookup Table method, where its pre-calculated values were stored in the onboard memory, and its frequency can be adjustable by changing the incremental step value of the memory address. In this proposed research, the memory stores only 25000 samples of the first quarter from a period of a sine wave and thus, the output signal accuracy was increased and the output frequency range was expanded, compared to the previous research. The proposed design was successfully developed and implemented in ALTERA Cyclone III DE0 FPGA Development Board, and its functionality was validated via functional simulation in Modelsim and also hardware experimental results observation in SignalTap II.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
IRJET- Compressed Sensing based Modified Orthogonal Matching Pursuit in DTTV ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses a modified orthogonal matching pursuit algorithm used for channel estimation in digital terrestrial television systems. It proposes using compressed sensing based channel estimation at the receiver to eliminate sparse information. Thresholding is used to remove noise from the channel estimation and improve signal quality. Simulation results show that bit error rate decreases when the received signal power from different transmitters is almost equal.
CNR and BER Ranges for the DVB-T2 Reception-Success IJECEIAES
DVB-T2 (Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial Second Generation) reception requires a sufficient quality of the received signal. CNR (carrier-tonoise ratio) and BER (bit-error-rate) are two of quantities describing the quality. This paper presents the range of each quantity providing a successful reception based on real data obtained by field-measurements. This data was collected from MO (mobile-outdoor) and SI (stationary-indoor) receivingsystems capturing signal sent by some on-air trial transmitters broadcasting services focused on the fixed-receivers. The result indicated that the successful and failed receptions were split into two quite separated (concentrated) ranges of post-decoded BER and therefore a boundary distinguishing them could be prominently defined. In contrast, they were spread in a wide common range of CNR and pre-decoded BER. Furthermore, the boundary that corresponded to this last quantity was ambiguous. In the case of MO reception as numerical examples, the two split ranges of post- decoded BER were less than about 10 5 and more than about 2.7 × 10 for the successful and failed receptions, respectively, whereas CNR as high as about 14 dB could be viewed as a soft boundary distinguishing these both reception-success conditions.
This document discusses regenerative repeaters and communication link budgets. It begins by explaining how regenerative repeaters detect and regenerate signals to boost the signal strength along the transmission path without amplifying noise. It then provides examples of calculating error probabilities for systems with regenerative vs analog repeaters. Next, it outlines the parameters considered in a communication link budget, such as transmitter power, antenna gains and losses. Finally, it works through an example link budget calculation for a geosynchronous satellite system.
This document describes a simulation of an optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system using different M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) techniques. The performance of the system was evaluated in terms of bit error rate (BER) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by varying the modulation order M to 16, 64, and 256. Simulation results showed that higher modulation orders require higher SNR values to achieve the same BER as lower modulation orders. The simulated results closely matched theoretical predictions, though there was a deviation of 3-3.5 dB, likely due to additional noise and losses not accounted for in the theoretical model.
This document presents a method for updating the memory table of a distributed arithmetic (DA) adaptive FIR filter without compromising convergence speed or requiring additional memory resources. DA reduces computational workload by precomputing and storing filter coefficient sums in a lookup table (LUT). However, updating the table is challenging for adaptive filters. The proposed method exploits temporal locality and subexpression sharing to fully update the table with each new sample. It reduces computations and maintains fast convergence. The method enables efficient implementation of computationally-intensive discrete wavelet transforms using DA's parallel architecture and maximal LUT utilization. Simulation results show the discrete wavelet transform can be computed with high LUT utilization using this adaptive DA filter design.
A Novel Alamouti STBC Technique for MIMO System Using 16- QAM Modulation and ...IJERA Editor
The wireless communication is the emerging field of research among communication researchers and they are
continuously working towards the reduction if error occurred in the signal during transmission through wireless
media. In this paper the wireless system is simulated with the application of Alamouti space time block codes
(STBC) with MIMO and MISO configurations to compare the results. The modulation technique used here is
16-QAM which is giving better results than other counterparts and to enhance the performance of the system i.e.
to reduce the effect of errors on data we have applied a moving average filter(MAF). The performance of the
system is shown with the simulation results with variable data sizes and found that the proposed approach is
better for the system.
Analysis of Phase Noise and Gaussian Noise in terms of Average BER for DP 16-...IRJET Journal
This document analyzes phase noise and Gaussian noise in terms of average bit error rate (BER) for a 112 Gbps dual polarization 16-QAM (DP 16-QAM) optical coherent receiver using digital signal processing (DSP) and different digital filters. It first describes the DP 16-QAM coherent receiver system and the DSP techniques used, including carrier phase estimation. It then simulates the system using Optisystem and MATLAB software and analyzes the phase noise before carrier phase estimation and Gaussian noise after by plotting average BER versus optical signal-to-noise ratio for various filter types and orders. The results show that the 3rd order Gaussian filter provided the lowest average BER and therefore the best noise performance.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
IRJET- Compressed Sensing based Modified Orthogonal Matching Pursuit in DTTV ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses a modified orthogonal matching pursuit algorithm used for channel estimation in digital terrestrial television systems. It proposes using compressed sensing based channel estimation at the receiver to eliminate sparse information. Thresholding is used to remove noise from the channel estimation and improve signal quality. Simulation results show that bit error rate decreases when the received signal power from different transmitters is almost equal.
CNR and BER Ranges for the DVB-T2 Reception-Success IJECEIAES
DVB-T2 (Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial Second Generation) reception requires a sufficient quality of the received signal. CNR (carrier-tonoise ratio) and BER (bit-error-rate) are two of quantities describing the quality. This paper presents the range of each quantity providing a successful reception based on real data obtained by field-measurements. This data was collected from MO (mobile-outdoor) and SI (stationary-indoor) receivingsystems capturing signal sent by some on-air trial transmitters broadcasting services focused on the fixed-receivers. The result indicated that the successful and failed receptions were split into two quite separated (concentrated) ranges of post-decoded BER and therefore a boundary distinguishing them could be prominently defined. In contrast, they were spread in a wide common range of CNR and pre-decoded BER. Furthermore, the boundary that corresponded to this last quantity was ambiguous. In the case of MO reception as numerical examples, the two split ranges of post- decoded BER were less than about 10 5 and more than about 2.7 × 10 for the successful and failed receptions, respectively, whereas CNR as high as about 14 dB could be viewed as a soft boundary distinguishing these both reception-success conditions.
This document discusses regenerative repeaters and communication link budgets. It begins by explaining how regenerative repeaters detect and regenerate signals to boost the signal strength along the transmission path without amplifying noise. It then provides examples of calculating error probabilities for systems with regenerative vs analog repeaters. Next, it outlines the parameters considered in a communication link budget, such as transmitter power, antenna gains and losses. Finally, it works through an example link budget calculation for a geosynchronous satellite system.
This document describes a simulation of an optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system using different M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) techniques. The performance of the system was evaluated in terms of bit error rate (BER) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) by varying the modulation order M to 16, 64, and 256. Simulation results showed that higher modulation orders require higher SNR values to achieve the same BER as lower modulation orders. The simulated results closely matched theoretical predictions, though there was a deviation of 3-3.5 dB, likely due to additional noise and losses not accounted for in the theoretical model.
This document presents a method for updating the memory table of a distributed arithmetic (DA) adaptive FIR filter without compromising convergence speed or requiring additional memory resources. DA reduces computational workload by precomputing and storing filter coefficient sums in a lookup table (LUT). However, updating the table is challenging for adaptive filters. The proposed method exploits temporal locality and subexpression sharing to fully update the table with each new sample. It reduces computations and maintains fast convergence. The method enables efficient implementation of computationally-intensive discrete wavelet transforms using DA's parallel architecture and maximal LUT utilization. Simulation results show the discrete wavelet transform can be computed with high LUT utilization using this adaptive DA filter design.
A Novel Alamouti STBC Technique for MIMO System Using 16- QAM Modulation and ...IJERA Editor
The wireless communication is the emerging field of research among communication researchers and they are
continuously working towards the reduction if error occurred in the signal during transmission through wireless
media. In this paper the wireless system is simulated with the application of Alamouti space time block codes
(STBC) with MIMO and MISO configurations to compare the results. The modulation technique used here is
16-QAM which is giving better results than other counterparts and to enhance the performance of the system i.e.
to reduce the effect of errors on data we have applied a moving average filter(MAF). The performance of the
system is shown with the simulation results with variable data sizes and found that the proposed approach is
better for the system.
Analysis of Phase Noise and Gaussian Noise in terms of Average BER for DP 16-...IRJET Journal
This document analyzes phase noise and Gaussian noise in terms of average bit error rate (BER) for a 112 Gbps dual polarization 16-QAM (DP 16-QAM) optical coherent receiver using digital signal processing (DSP) and different digital filters. It first describes the DP 16-QAM coherent receiver system and the DSP techniques used, including carrier phase estimation. It then simulates the system using Optisystem and MATLAB software and analyzes the phase noise before carrier phase estimation and Gaussian noise after by plotting average BER versus optical signal-to-noise ratio for various filter types and orders. The results show that the 3rd order Gaussian filter provided the lowest average BER and therefore the best noise performance.
The document discusses digital transmission fundamentals, including:
- Digital representation of analog signals involves sampling, quantization, and pulse code modulation.
- The sampling rate must be at least twice the bandwidth of the signal to allow perfect reconstruction.
- Quantization maps samples to discrete levels, introducing quantization error. More levels reduce error but increase transmission bandwidth needs.
- Digital transmission enables long distance communication by regeneration of the digital signal rather than analog amplification, overcoming distance limitations of analog systems.
Performance Analysis of OSTBC MIMO Using Precoder with ZF & MMSE EqualizerIJERA Editor
In this paper, a bit error rate analysis is presented for multiple-input–multiple-output (MIMO) system with finite-bit feedback is considered in PSK modulation technique, where a transmit signal consists of a rotational precoder followed by an orthogonal space–time block code (OSTBC) which achieve full diversity when a linear receiver, such as, zeroforcing (ZF) or minimum mean square (MMSE), is used. By choosing different parameters, codes with different symbol rates and orthogonally can be obtained .In this paper, we compare the performance of a family of space-time codes. Simulations show how the precoders obtained by our proposed criterion and method perform better bit error rate reduction compared to the existing ones.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document discusses digital transmission fundamentals, including:
- Digital signals are represented as sequences of bits that can take on discrete values (0 or 1). More bits are needed to represent information with higher content or complexity.
- Analog signals like voice and video need to be digitized by sampling and quantizing them. This allows the signals to be transmitted over digital networks and regenerated without degradation.
- Communication channels have bandwidth limits that constrain the rate at which information can be transmitted accurately. Channels also introduce impairments like noise, attenuation and distortion.
- Digital transmission offers advantages over analog like long-distance communication without repeated degradation and the ability to detect and correct errors.
Introduction to Channel Capacity | DCNIT-LDTalks-1Arunabha Saha
DCNIT-LDTalks-1
Here I have discussed the channel capacity for noiseless and noisy channels. How Nyquist capacity and Shannon capacity play a key role in the noiseless and noisy channels are discussed in detail. We will see the several expressions of SNR_dB in terms of power and amplitude and try to understand how both the capacity are different from each other. For extreme values of SNR, we will deduce the Shannon capacity formula to understand the bandwidth-limited region and power-limited region. Here I have used a few numerical examples to understand the concept clearly. In the last section of the talk, I have deduced the Shannon capacity formula from scratch to get better exposure and will understand how these ideas contribute to its mathematical framework.
Course: CMS-A-CC-4-8
youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OjlMqHWq6o
A NOVEL ENF EXTRACTION APPROACH FOR REGION-OF-RECORDING IDENTIFICATION OF MED...cscpconf
The electric network frequency (ENF) of power lines leaves its trace in nearby media recordings. The ENF signals vary in a consistent way in a given power grid. Therefore, it is possible to develop signal processing and machine learning techniques to identify the grid of origin by extracting attributes of the embedded ENF signal in recorded audio. This paper presents a model based on a novel ENF extraction technique with training on audio and power recordings from different grids. The proposed approach is based on correcting erroneously selected peaks from the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) by leveraging time correlations. These peaks are mistakenly taken for the frequency component belonging to the embedded ENF signal of the power grid and are corrected by the algorithm. Results on a test set of 50 recordings from nine different locations demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach with an overall accuracy of 88%.
This document discusses the process of sampling in signal processing. It defines key terms like analog and digital signals, sampling frequency, and samples. It explains how sampling works by taking regular measurements of a continuous signal's amplitude over time. This converts it into a discrete-time signal. It discusses applications of sampling like audio sampling, where signals are typically sampled above 20 kHz. It also discusses video sampling rates and speech sampling rates. The document contains examples and diagrams to illustrate these concepts.
Channel Estimation In The STTC For OFDM Using MIMO With 4G SystemIOSR Journals
This document summarizes a research paper on channel estimation in space-time trellis coding (STTC) for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) using multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology in 4G wireless systems. It describes how STTC achieves transmit diversity by using specially designed channel codes at the transmitter along with signal processing at the receiver. Simulation results show that STTC for OFDM-MIMO systems can achieve a bit error rate of 10-5 at lower signal-to-noise ratios when using phase-shift keying modulation schemes like 2-PSK, 4-PSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK. Decoding techniques like minimum mean square error, zero forcing and
A-law and μ-law companding are standards used to reduce the bandwidth of digitized speech signals by compressing 13-bit pulse code modulation (PCM) samples to 8-bit codes. Both methods apply a logarithmic quantization function to allocate more bits to represent smaller signals and fewer bits for larger signals, mimicking human hearing sensitivity. They approximate the logarithmic curve using piecewise linear segments called chords. Encoding yields an 8-bit code containing a sign bit, 3-bit chord value, and 4-bit step value. Decoding reverses this process to reconstruct the original PCM sample. A-law is used in Europe while μ-law is used in the US and Japan.
This project implemented a wideband spectrum sensing algorithm using a software-defined radio to detect active signals in the electromagnetic spectrum around SUNY Oswego. The algorithm used hypothesis testing on received signals to identify center frequencies and bandwidths of signals like LTE, aeronautical radio and Earth-space communications. Testing showed the algorithm could accurately detect signals in noise and identify occupied portions of the spectrum between 88-90 MHz and others. Future work could involve networking multiple SDRs to provide real-time spectrum analysis across a wider area.
GPS Instrumental Biases Estimation Using Continuous Operating Receivers NetworkCSCJournals
Precise Total Electron Content (TEC) are required to produce accurate spatial and temporal resolution of Global Ionosphere Maps (GIMs). Receivers and Satellites Instrumental Biases (IBs) are one of the main error sources in estimating precise TEC from Global Positioning Systems (GPS) data. Recently, researchers are interested in developing models and algorithms to compute IBs of receivers and satellites close to those computed from the Ionosphere Associated Analysis Centers (IAAC). Here we introduce a MATLAB code called Multi Station IBs Estimation (MSIBE) to calculate satellites and codeless tracking receivers IBs from GPS data. MSIBE based on spherical harmonic function and geometry free combination of GPS carrier phase and pseudo-range code observations and weighted least square were applied to solve observation equations, to improve estimation of IBs values. There are many factors affecting estimated value of IBs. The premier factor is the observations weighting function which relying on the satellite elevation angle. The second factor concerned with estimating IBs using single GPS Station Precise Point Positioning (PPP) or using GPS network. The third factor is the number of GPS receivers in the network. Results from MSIBE were evaluated and compared with data from IAAC and other codes like M_DCB and ZDDCBE. The results of weighted (MSIBE) least square shows an improvement for estimated IBs, where mean differences from CODE less than 0.746 ns. IBs estimated from Continuous Operating Receivers (CORs) GPS network shows a good agreement with IAAC than IBs estimated from PPP where the mean differences are less than 0.1477 ns and 1.1866 ns, respectively. The mean differences of computed IBs improved by increasing number of GPS stations in the network.
Signal to-noise-ratio of signal acquisition in global navigation satellite sy...Alexander Decker
This document discusses signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements for global navigation satellite systems. It presents formulas to calculate SNR and a new ratio called noise-to-signal ratio (NSR). The effects of bit error rate and bit time on SNR and NSR are studied. As bit error rate and bit time increase, SNR decreases while NSR increases, indicating lower signal quality. Graphs show the relationships between SNR and both bit error rate and bit time, as well as between NSR and the two factors. Improving SNR and reducing NSR is important for better signal acquisition quality.
The document discusses MPEG-2 transport streams, which allow multiplexing of audio, video and other data into a single format suitable for transmission and storage. It describes the two multiplexing methods - program streams designed for error-free applications, and transport streams using fixed size packets for lossy applications. Transport streams carry multiple programs using packet identification and program mapping tables to associate elementary streams.
Multiuser MIMO Vector Perturbation Precodingadeelrazi
This paper proposes methods for sum rate optimization in multi-user MIMO systems using vector perturbation precoding. It derives an expression for sum rate in terms of the average transmitted vector energy. It then uses this to obtain a high-SNR upper bound on sum rate and proposes an extension of vector perturbation that allocates different rates to different users. It also proposes a low-complexity user scheduling algorithm as a method for rate allocation.
It is a digital representation of an analog signal that takes samples of the amplitude of the analog signal at regular intervals. The sampled analog data is changed to, and then represented by, binary data.
Projected Barzilai-Borwein Methods Applied to Distributed Compressive Spectru...Polytechnique Montreal
Cognitive radio allows unlicensed (cognitive) users to use licensed frequency bands by exploiting spectrum sensing techniques to detect whether or not the licensed (primary) users are present. In this paper, we present a compressed sensing applied to spectrum-occupancy detection in wide-band applications. The collected analog signals from each cognitive radio (CR) receiver at a fusion center are transformed to discrete-time signals by using analog-to-information converter (AIC) and then employed to calculate the autocorrelation. For signal reconstruction, we exploit a novel approach to solve the optimization problem consisting of minimizing both a quadratic (l2) error term and an l1-regularization term. In specific, we propose the Basic gradient projection (GP) and projected Barzilai-Borwein (PBB) algorithm to offer a better performance in terms of the mean squared error of the power spectrum density estimate and the detection probability of licensed signal occupancy.
This document analyzes the performance of an adaptive orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system over an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. It considers the system's bit error rate (BER), mean square error (MSE), spectral efficiency, and throughput using binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The system adaptively selects the modulation scheme on each subcarrier based on instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements to improve performance. Simulation results show that higher order modulation is used at lower SNRs for better spectral efficiency, while lower modulation is used at higher SNRs to improve throughput. The adaptive
AN APPLICATION OF NEURAL NETWORKS TO CHANNEL ESTIMATION OF THE ISDB-TB FBMC S...ijwmn
Due to the evolution of technology and the diffusion of digital television, many researchers are studying
more efficient transmission and reception methods. This fact occurs because of the demand of transmitting
videos with better quality using new standards such 8K SUPER Hi-VISION. In this scenario, modulation
techniquessuch as Filter Bank Multi Carrier, associated with advanced coding and synchronization
methods, are being applied, aiming to achieve the desired data rate to support ultra-high definition videos.
Simultaneously, it is also important to investigate ways of channel estimation that enable a better reception
of the transmitted signal. This task is not always trivial, depending on the characteristics of the channel.
Thus, the use of artificial intelligence can contribute to estimate the channel frequency response, from the
transmitted pilots. A classical algorithm called Back-propagation Training can be applied to find the
channel equalizer coefficients, making possible the correct reception of TV signals. Therefore, this work
presents a method of channel estimation that uses neural network techniques to obtain the channel
response in the Brazilian Digital System Television, called ISDB-TB, using Filter Bank Multi Carrier.
This document compares the performance of uncoded and coded adaptive orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with different modulation schemes over additive white Gaussian noise channels. It analyzes the bit error rate, mean square error, spectral efficiency, and throughput of adaptive OFDM using binary phase-shift keying, quadrature phase-shift keying, and quadrature amplitude modulation. The results show that higher order modulation schemes are used at lower signal-to-noise ratios, while lower order schemes are used at higher signal-to-noise ratios. Coded adaptive OFDM has similar bit error rate performance as uncoded up to 9dB, but degrades at higher signal-to-noise ratios. Coded adaptive OFDM also achie
ENERGY EFFICIENT OPTIMUM SAMPLING RATE FOR ANALOGUE SIGNALS WITH EXTREMELY WI...ijwmn
The natural signals are mostly analogue in nature, but because of the benefits of digital processing of these
signals: flexibility, accuracy, storage and low cost; processing these signals digitally is often preferred.
But the existing analogues to digital converters are efficient in processing signals with small to medium
bandwidths, but inefficient for signals with large bandwidths. The real-time processing of these signals
with large bandwidths are done analogically or optically at the cost of the aforementioned advantages of
digital processing of these signals. This paper is aimed at solving the real-time challenge of processing
these extremely wide bandwidth signals digitally using a compressive sensing (CS) algorithm, with specific
detail on the ways the application of CS will enhance the energy efficiency of wireless communication
devices. Consequently, determine the throughput at which the use of CS is energy efficient for wireless
devices using energy-efficient compressive sensing throughput (EECST) model. The simulation results
show that the throughput requirements for introducing CS in any machine to machine (M2M) / internet of
things (IoT) communication application to be energy efficient are minimum of 54bits per second and 317
bits per second when the required number of clock cycles for performing various device applications is
20,000 and 50000 respectively.
Energy Efficient Optimum Sampling Rate for Analogue Signals with Extremely Wi...ijwmn
The natural signals are mostly analogue in nature, but because of the benefits of digital processing of these
signals: flexibility, accuracy, storage and low cost; processing these signals digitally is often preferred.
But the existing analogues to digital converters are efficient in processing signals with small to medium
bandwidths, but inefficient for signals with large bandwidths. The real-time processing of these signals
with large bandwidths are done analogically or optically at the cost of the aforementioned advantages of
digital processing of these signals. This paper is aimed at solving the real-time challenge of processing
these extremely wide bandwidth signals digitally using a compressive sensing (CS) algorithm, with specific
detail on the ways the application of CS will enhance the energy efficiency of wireless communication
devices. Consequently, determine the throughput at which the use of CS is energy efficient for wireless
devices using energy-efficient compressive sensing throughput (EECST) model. The simulation results
show that the throughput requirements for introducing CS in any machine to machine (M2M) / internet of
things (IoT) communication application to be energy efficient are minimum of 54bits per second and 317
bits per second when the required number of clock cycles for performing various device applications is
20,000 and 50000 respectively.
The document discusses digital transmission fundamentals, including:
- Digital representation of analog signals involves sampling, quantization, and pulse code modulation.
- The sampling rate must be at least twice the bandwidth of the signal to allow perfect reconstruction.
- Quantization maps samples to discrete levels, introducing quantization error. More levels reduce error but increase transmission bandwidth needs.
- Digital transmission enables long distance communication by regeneration of the digital signal rather than analog amplification, overcoming distance limitations of analog systems.
Performance Analysis of OSTBC MIMO Using Precoder with ZF & MMSE EqualizerIJERA Editor
In this paper, a bit error rate analysis is presented for multiple-input–multiple-output (MIMO) system with finite-bit feedback is considered in PSK modulation technique, where a transmit signal consists of a rotational precoder followed by an orthogonal space–time block code (OSTBC) which achieve full diversity when a linear receiver, such as, zeroforcing (ZF) or minimum mean square (MMSE), is used. By choosing different parameters, codes with different symbol rates and orthogonally can be obtained .In this paper, we compare the performance of a family of space-time codes. Simulations show how the precoders obtained by our proposed criterion and method perform better bit error rate reduction compared to the existing ones.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document discusses digital transmission fundamentals, including:
- Digital signals are represented as sequences of bits that can take on discrete values (0 or 1). More bits are needed to represent information with higher content or complexity.
- Analog signals like voice and video need to be digitized by sampling and quantizing them. This allows the signals to be transmitted over digital networks and regenerated without degradation.
- Communication channels have bandwidth limits that constrain the rate at which information can be transmitted accurately. Channels also introduce impairments like noise, attenuation and distortion.
- Digital transmission offers advantages over analog like long-distance communication without repeated degradation and the ability to detect and correct errors.
Introduction to Channel Capacity | DCNIT-LDTalks-1Arunabha Saha
DCNIT-LDTalks-1
Here I have discussed the channel capacity for noiseless and noisy channels. How Nyquist capacity and Shannon capacity play a key role in the noiseless and noisy channels are discussed in detail. We will see the several expressions of SNR_dB in terms of power and amplitude and try to understand how both the capacity are different from each other. For extreme values of SNR, we will deduce the Shannon capacity formula to understand the bandwidth-limited region and power-limited region. Here I have used a few numerical examples to understand the concept clearly. In the last section of the talk, I have deduced the Shannon capacity formula from scratch to get better exposure and will understand how these ideas contribute to its mathematical framework.
Course: CMS-A-CC-4-8
youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OjlMqHWq6o
A NOVEL ENF EXTRACTION APPROACH FOR REGION-OF-RECORDING IDENTIFICATION OF MED...cscpconf
The electric network frequency (ENF) of power lines leaves its trace in nearby media recordings. The ENF signals vary in a consistent way in a given power grid. Therefore, it is possible to develop signal processing and machine learning techniques to identify the grid of origin by extracting attributes of the embedded ENF signal in recorded audio. This paper presents a model based on a novel ENF extraction technique with training on audio and power recordings from different grids. The proposed approach is based on correcting erroneously selected peaks from the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) by leveraging time correlations. These peaks are mistakenly taken for the frequency component belonging to the embedded ENF signal of the power grid and are corrected by the algorithm. Results on a test set of 50 recordings from nine different locations demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach with an overall accuracy of 88%.
This document discusses the process of sampling in signal processing. It defines key terms like analog and digital signals, sampling frequency, and samples. It explains how sampling works by taking regular measurements of a continuous signal's amplitude over time. This converts it into a discrete-time signal. It discusses applications of sampling like audio sampling, where signals are typically sampled above 20 kHz. It also discusses video sampling rates and speech sampling rates. The document contains examples and diagrams to illustrate these concepts.
Channel Estimation In The STTC For OFDM Using MIMO With 4G SystemIOSR Journals
This document summarizes a research paper on channel estimation in space-time trellis coding (STTC) for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) using multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology in 4G wireless systems. It describes how STTC achieves transmit diversity by using specially designed channel codes at the transmitter along with signal processing at the receiver. Simulation results show that STTC for OFDM-MIMO systems can achieve a bit error rate of 10-5 at lower signal-to-noise ratios when using phase-shift keying modulation schemes like 2-PSK, 4-PSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK. Decoding techniques like minimum mean square error, zero forcing and
A-law and μ-law companding are standards used to reduce the bandwidth of digitized speech signals by compressing 13-bit pulse code modulation (PCM) samples to 8-bit codes. Both methods apply a logarithmic quantization function to allocate more bits to represent smaller signals and fewer bits for larger signals, mimicking human hearing sensitivity. They approximate the logarithmic curve using piecewise linear segments called chords. Encoding yields an 8-bit code containing a sign bit, 3-bit chord value, and 4-bit step value. Decoding reverses this process to reconstruct the original PCM sample. A-law is used in Europe while μ-law is used in the US and Japan.
This project implemented a wideband spectrum sensing algorithm using a software-defined radio to detect active signals in the electromagnetic spectrum around SUNY Oswego. The algorithm used hypothesis testing on received signals to identify center frequencies and bandwidths of signals like LTE, aeronautical radio and Earth-space communications. Testing showed the algorithm could accurately detect signals in noise and identify occupied portions of the spectrum between 88-90 MHz and others. Future work could involve networking multiple SDRs to provide real-time spectrum analysis across a wider area.
GPS Instrumental Biases Estimation Using Continuous Operating Receivers NetworkCSCJournals
Precise Total Electron Content (TEC) are required to produce accurate spatial and temporal resolution of Global Ionosphere Maps (GIMs). Receivers and Satellites Instrumental Biases (IBs) are one of the main error sources in estimating precise TEC from Global Positioning Systems (GPS) data. Recently, researchers are interested in developing models and algorithms to compute IBs of receivers and satellites close to those computed from the Ionosphere Associated Analysis Centers (IAAC). Here we introduce a MATLAB code called Multi Station IBs Estimation (MSIBE) to calculate satellites and codeless tracking receivers IBs from GPS data. MSIBE based on spherical harmonic function and geometry free combination of GPS carrier phase and pseudo-range code observations and weighted least square were applied to solve observation equations, to improve estimation of IBs values. There are many factors affecting estimated value of IBs. The premier factor is the observations weighting function which relying on the satellite elevation angle. The second factor concerned with estimating IBs using single GPS Station Precise Point Positioning (PPP) or using GPS network. The third factor is the number of GPS receivers in the network. Results from MSIBE were evaluated and compared with data from IAAC and other codes like M_DCB and ZDDCBE. The results of weighted (MSIBE) least square shows an improvement for estimated IBs, where mean differences from CODE less than 0.746 ns. IBs estimated from Continuous Operating Receivers (CORs) GPS network shows a good agreement with IAAC than IBs estimated from PPP where the mean differences are less than 0.1477 ns and 1.1866 ns, respectively. The mean differences of computed IBs improved by increasing number of GPS stations in the network.
Signal to-noise-ratio of signal acquisition in global navigation satellite sy...Alexander Decker
This document discusses signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements for global navigation satellite systems. It presents formulas to calculate SNR and a new ratio called noise-to-signal ratio (NSR). The effects of bit error rate and bit time on SNR and NSR are studied. As bit error rate and bit time increase, SNR decreases while NSR increases, indicating lower signal quality. Graphs show the relationships between SNR and both bit error rate and bit time, as well as between NSR and the two factors. Improving SNR and reducing NSR is important for better signal acquisition quality.
The document discusses MPEG-2 transport streams, which allow multiplexing of audio, video and other data into a single format suitable for transmission and storage. It describes the two multiplexing methods - program streams designed for error-free applications, and transport streams using fixed size packets for lossy applications. Transport streams carry multiple programs using packet identification and program mapping tables to associate elementary streams.
Multiuser MIMO Vector Perturbation Precodingadeelrazi
This paper proposes methods for sum rate optimization in multi-user MIMO systems using vector perturbation precoding. It derives an expression for sum rate in terms of the average transmitted vector energy. It then uses this to obtain a high-SNR upper bound on sum rate and proposes an extension of vector perturbation that allocates different rates to different users. It also proposes a low-complexity user scheduling algorithm as a method for rate allocation.
It is a digital representation of an analog signal that takes samples of the amplitude of the analog signal at regular intervals. The sampled analog data is changed to, and then represented by, binary data.
Projected Barzilai-Borwein Methods Applied to Distributed Compressive Spectru...Polytechnique Montreal
Cognitive radio allows unlicensed (cognitive) users to use licensed frequency bands by exploiting spectrum sensing techniques to detect whether or not the licensed (primary) users are present. In this paper, we present a compressed sensing applied to spectrum-occupancy detection in wide-band applications. The collected analog signals from each cognitive radio (CR) receiver at a fusion center are transformed to discrete-time signals by using analog-to-information converter (AIC) and then employed to calculate the autocorrelation. For signal reconstruction, we exploit a novel approach to solve the optimization problem consisting of minimizing both a quadratic (l2) error term and an l1-regularization term. In specific, we propose the Basic gradient projection (GP) and projected Barzilai-Borwein (PBB) algorithm to offer a better performance in terms of the mean squared error of the power spectrum density estimate and the detection probability of licensed signal occupancy.
This document analyzes the performance of an adaptive orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system over an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. It considers the system's bit error rate (BER), mean square error (MSE), spectral efficiency, and throughput using binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The system adaptively selects the modulation scheme on each subcarrier based on instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements to improve performance. Simulation results show that higher order modulation is used at lower SNRs for better spectral efficiency, while lower modulation is used at higher SNRs to improve throughput. The adaptive
AN APPLICATION OF NEURAL NETWORKS TO CHANNEL ESTIMATION OF THE ISDB-TB FBMC S...ijwmn
Due to the evolution of technology and the diffusion of digital television, many researchers are studying
more efficient transmission and reception methods. This fact occurs because of the demand of transmitting
videos with better quality using new standards such 8K SUPER Hi-VISION. In this scenario, modulation
techniquessuch as Filter Bank Multi Carrier, associated with advanced coding and synchronization
methods, are being applied, aiming to achieve the desired data rate to support ultra-high definition videos.
Simultaneously, it is also important to investigate ways of channel estimation that enable a better reception
of the transmitted signal. This task is not always trivial, depending on the characteristics of the channel.
Thus, the use of artificial intelligence can contribute to estimate the channel frequency response, from the
transmitted pilots. A classical algorithm called Back-propagation Training can be applied to find the
channel equalizer coefficients, making possible the correct reception of TV signals. Therefore, this work
presents a method of channel estimation that uses neural network techniques to obtain the channel
response in the Brazilian Digital System Television, called ISDB-TB, using Filter Bank Multi Carrier.
This document compares the performance of uncoded and coded adaptive orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with different modulation schemes over additive white Gaussian noise channels. It analyzes the bit error rate, mean square error, spectral efficiency, and throughput of adaptive OFDM using binary phase-shift keying, quadrature phase-shift keying, and quadrature amplitude modulation. The results show that higher order modulation schemes are used at lower signal-to-noise ratios, while lower order schemes are used at higher signal-to-noise ratios. Coded adaptive OFDM has similar bit error rate performance as uncoded up to 9dB, but degrades at higher signal-to-noise ratios. Coded adaptive OFDM also achie
ENERGY EFFICIENT OPTIMUM SAMPLING RATE FOR ANALOGUE SIGNALS WITH EXTREMELY WI...ijwmn
The natural signals are mostly analogue in nature, but because of the benefits of digital processing of these
signals: flexibility, accuracy, storage and low cost; processing these signals digitally is often preferred.
But the existing analogues to digital converters are efficient in processing signals with small to medium
bandwidths, but inefficient for signals with large bandwidths. The real-time processing of these signals
with large bandwidths are done analogically or optically at the cost of the aforementioned advantages of
digital processing of these signals. This paper is aimed at solving the real-time challenge of processing
these extremely wide bandwidth signals digitally using a compressive sensing (CS) algorithm, with specific
detail on the ways the application of CS will enhance the energy efficiency of wireless communication
devices. Consequently, determine the throughput at which the use of CS is energy efficient for wireless
devices using energy-efficient compressive sensing throughput (EECST) model. The simulation results
show that the throughput requirements for introducing CS in any machine to machine (M2M) / internet of
things (IoT) communication application to be energy efficient are minimum of 54bits per second and 317
bits per second when the required number of clock cycles for performing various device applications is
20,000 and 50000 respectively.
Energy Efficient Optimum Sampling Rate for Analogue Signals with Extremely Wi...ijwmn
The natural signals are mostly analogue in nature, but because of the benefits of digital processing of these
signals: flexibility, accuracy, storage and low cost; processing these signals digitally is often preferred.
But the existing analogues to digital converters are efficient in processing signals with small to medium
bandwidths, but inefficient for signals with large bandwidths. The real-time processing of these signals
with large bandwidths are done analogically or optically at the cost of the aforementioned advantages of
digital processing of these signals. This paper is aimed at solving the real-time challenge of processing
these extremely wide bandwidth signals digitally using a compressive sensing (CS) algorithm, with specific
detail on the ways the application of CS will enhance the energy efficiency of wireless communication
devices. Consequently, determine the throughput at which the use of CS is energy efficient for wireless
devices using energy-efficient compressive sensing throughput (EECST) model. The simulation results
show that the throughput requirements for introducing CS in any machine to machine (M2M) / internet of
things (IoT) communication application to be energy efficient are minimum of 54bits per second and 317
bits per second when the required number of clock cycles for performing various device applications is
20,000 and 50000 respectively.
Design and Implementation of Area Optimized, Low Complexity CMOS 32nm Technol...IJERA Editor
A numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) is a digital signal generator which is a very important block in many Digital Communication Systems such as Software Defined Radios, Digital Radio set and Modems, Down/Up converters for Cellular and PCS base stations etc. NCO creates a synchronous, discrete-time, discrete-valued representation of a sinusoidal waveform. This paper implements the development and design of CMOS look up Table based numerically controlled oscillator which improves the performance, reduces the power & area requirement. The design is implemented with CMOS 32 nm Technology with Microwind 3.8 software tool. In addition, it can be used for analog circuit also enables the integration of complete system on chip. This paper also describes the design of a NCO which is of contemporary nature with reasonable speed, resolution and linearity with lower power, low area. For all about Pre Layout simulation has been realized using 32nm CMOS process Technology.
AREA OPTIMIZED FPGA IMPLEMENTATION FOR GENERATION OF RADAR PULSE COM-PRESSION...VLSICS Design
Pulse compression technique is most widely used in radar and communication areas. Its implementation requires an opti-mized and dedicated hardware. The real time implementation places several constraints such as area occupied, power con-sumption, etc. The good design needs optimization of these constraints. This paper concentrates on the design of optimized model which can reduce these. In the proposed architecture a single chip is used for generating the pulse compression se-quence like BPSk, QPSk, 6-PSK and other Polyphase codes. The VLSI architecture is implemented on the Field Programm-able Gate Array (FPGA) as it provides the flexibility of reconfigurability and reprogrammability .It was found that the proposed architecture has generated the pulse compression sequences efficiently while improving some of the parameters like area, power consumption and delay when compared to previous methods.
Frequency hopping signal of dds based on fpga hardwareVinsion Chan
This document describes the design of a frequency hopping signal generation system based on a direct digital synthesizer (DDS) implemented on an FPGA. It discusses the basic principles of DDS and how it can be used to generate frequency hopping signals. The key components of the system include a logical address control unit to generate frequency control words and a DDS unit with a phase accumulator and ROM lookup table to generate signals. Simulation results show the DDS generates stable frequency hopping signals with low error.
Iaetsd gmsk modulation implementation for gsm in dspIaetsd Iaetsd
This document describes the implementation of a GMSK modulator on a TMS320C6713 digital signal processor. GMSK modulation is used in GSM cellular systems due to its bandwidth efficiency. The author designed a simple algorithm to accurately generate GMSK signals in DSP. Key components included a numerically controlled oscillator and Gaussian low-pass filter implemented as a finite impulse response filter. Simulation results were obtained using Elanix software to verify the GMSK modulator design.
Parallel implementation of pulse compression method on a multi-core digital ...IJECEIAES
Pulse compression algorithm is widely used in radar applications. It requires a huge processing power in order to be executed in real time. Therefore, its processing must be distributed along multiple processing units. The present paper proposes a real time platform based on the multi-core digital signal processor (DSP) C6678 from Texas Instruments (TI). The objective of this paper is the optimization of the parallel implementation of pulse compression algorithm over the eight cores of the C6678 DSP. Two parallelization approaches were implemented. The first approach is based on the open multi processing (OpenMP) programming interface, which is a software interface that helps to execute different sections of a program on a multi core processor. The second approach is an optimized method that we have proposed in order to distribute the processing and to synchronize the eight cores of the C6678 DSP. The proposed method gives the best performance. Indeed, a parallel efficiency of 94% was obtained when the eight cores were activated.
Analysis of Microstrip Finger on Bandwidth of Interdigital Band Pass Filter u...IJREST
This document discusses using artificial neural networks to estimate the bandwidth of an interdigital band pass filter based on variations in the finger length. An ANN model was developed using data from electromagnetic simulations of filters with finger lengths ranging from 34mm to 24mm. Both multi-layer perceptron and radial basis function networks were tested, with the RBF network providing more accurate results with a mean squared error of 1.13173e-005. The proposed ANN approach allows estimating the filter bandwidth without complex calculations and provides a fast design method for interdigital band pass filters.
Advanced lock in amplifier for detection of phase transitions in liquid crystalsIAEME Publication
This document describes an advanced lock-in amplifier designed using a C8051F060 microcontroller. A lock-in amplifier is used to detect small signals buried in noise. The designed system uses the microcontroller's on-chip ADC and DAC to perform signal processing and detection. It can detect signals in the frequency range of 10Hz to 100kHz. The system was tested on a photoacoustic spectrometer to detect phase transitions in a liquid crystal compound. It was able to detect secondary transitions not observed previously with other instruments.
Study of FPGA Based Multi Channel Analyzer for Gamma Ray and X Ray Spectrometryijtsrd
Study of FPGA Based Multi channel Analyzer MCA for Gamma ray and X ray Spectroscopy has been presented in this article. For the systems, FPGA has been chosen as the central pulse processor. And NaI Tl scintillation counter, BF3 or Silicon Drift Detector followed by Voltage Preamplifier VPA or Fast Amplifier, Shaping Amplifier of 150 ns and 450 ns and high resolution ADC 8 12 bit, 50 MHz . Special features for the systems are Pulse Pile up Detection and Rejection, Clipping Pulses and Base line Restoration BLR . The system performance varies from 332 KCPS to 400 KCPS. Energy spectrum in the presence of 137Cs, 60Co, 232Th and broadband X ray beam by different nuclear detectors has been also presented. M. N. Islam | H. Akhter "Study of FPGA Based Multi-Channel Analyzer for Gamma-Ray and X-Ray Spectrometry" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd19113.pdf
The numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) is one of the digital oscillator
signal generators. It can generate the clocked, synchronous, discrete
waveform, and generally sinusoidal. Often NCOs care utilized in the
combinations of digital to analog converter (DAC) at the outputs for creating
direct digital synthesizer (DDS). The network on chips (NOCs) are utilized
in various communication systems that are fully digital or mixed signals
such as synthesis of arbitrary wave, precise control for sonar systems or
phased array radar, digital down/up converters, all the digital phase locked
loops (PLLs) for cellular and personal communication system (PCS) base
stations and drivers for acoustic or optical transmissions and multilevel
phase shift keying/frequency shift keying (PSK/FSK) modulators or
demodulators (modem). The basic architecture of NCO will be enhanced
and improved with less hardware for facilitating complete system level
support to various sorts of modulation with minimum FPGA resources. In
this paper design and memory optimization of hybrid gate diffusion input
(GDI) numerically controlled oscillator based on field programmable gate
array (FPGA) is implemented. compared with NCO based 8-bit microchip,
memory optimization of hybrid GDI numerically controlled oscillator based
on FPGA gives effective outcome in terms of delay, metal-oxidesemiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET’s) and nodes.
DSM Based low oversampling using SDR transmitterIJTET Journal
The oversampling recruitment is a limiting factor in high frequency application such as software defined radio. This project is a high frequency processing and low oversampling ratio. A single bit semi parallel processing is proposed in this paper. Using this single bit PDSM Architecture, high speed, high complexity computations are executed in parallel. The single bit DSM is to build an RF transmitter that includes a one bit quantifier with two level switching power amplifier for high linearity and high efficiency. Performance analysis by using the MATLAB simulations by reducing the oversampling ratio by same signal to noise ratio. The DSM implemented on field programmable gate array and using a signal code division multiple access signal. This project will give bandwidth of the low oversampled signal increased four times without increasing frequency. Finally they can be achieved signal to noise ratio is very low and also oversampling ratio is small.
Design and analysis of dual-mode numerically controlled oscillators based co...IJECEIAES
In this paper, the design and analysis of dual-mode numerically controlled oscillators (NCO) based controlled oscillator frequency Modulation is implemented. Initially, input is given to the analog to digital converter (ADC) converter. This will change the input from analog to digital converter. After that, the pulse skipping mode (PSM) logic and proportional integral (PI) are applied to the converted data. After applying PSM logic, data is directly transferred to the connection block. The proportional and integral block will transfer the data will be decoded using the decoder. After decoding the values, it is saved using a modulo accumulator. After that, it is converted from one hot residue (OHR) to binary converter. The converted data is saved in the register. Now both data will pass through the gate driver circuit and output will be obtained finally. From simulation results, it can observe that the usage of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) and total nodes are very less in dual-mode NCO-based controlled oscillator frequency modulation.
IRJET- Waveform Generation using Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) TechniqueIRJET Journal
The document describes the design and implementation of a waveform generator using direct digital synthesis (DDS) technique. DDS allows generation of waveforms like sine, square, and triangular waves by storing waveform points digitally and reconstructing the waveform. The DDS system uses a phase accumulator, lookup table, DAC, and filter. By varying the phase increment, different output frequencies can be achieved. An integrated circuit like AD9834 is used to implement the DDS core. An op-amp acts as a buffer and a low-pass filter shapes the output. The design allows building a low-cost, precise waveform generator for educational purposes.
IRJET- A Digital Down Converter on Zynq SoCIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and implementation of a digital down converter (DDC) on a Zynq System on Chip (SoC). Key points:
- The DDC is designed for airborne radar receivers to downconvert high sample rate digitized signals to a lower frequency for easier processing.
- The DDC implementation includes a direct digital synthesizer to generate input signals, complex multiplication for mixing, and a two-stage decimation and filtering process.
- The design is implemented on a Zynq SoC which provides the flexibility of a processor and programmability of an FPGA.
- Results show the DDC design achieves significant improvements in resource utilization compared to a full
Us3706855 s generator for digital pulse signals representative of analog igna...satyanpitroda
This patent describes a technique for generating digital pulse signals that represent analog multifrequency tone pairs used in telephone signaling systems. The technique involves storing compressed pulse amplitude modulated samples of each tone pair frequency combination in a non-destructive readout memory. When a tone pair needs to be transmitted, the corresponding block of samples is read out cyclically from the memory. The samples are encoded and transmitted as pulse code modulated signals, which can then be decoded back into analog signals by conventional receivers. Storing pre-encoded samples reduces the amount of hardware needed compared to directly generating and encoding analog tone pairs. The technique allows digital tone generation for use in pulse code modulated transmission systems.
Lightning Acquisition and Processing On Sensor Node Using NI cRIOijceronline
In this paper, we propose a digital design implementation for continuous real time data acquisition in case of a lightning event. The proposed system is capable of acquiring the lightning data at the rate of 1 MS/s on the FPGA. The system is also capable of providing very accurate timestamps in microsecond’s resolution. The data logging is carried out continuously on the PC using the TDMS file format with each and every sample being timestamped. The entire acquisition design is being implemented using NI cRIO hardware. The components of this assembly consist of the cRIO-9030 chassis , which contains a Kintex-7 FPGA , NI 9223 which is a sixteen bit ADC module, along with the NI 9467 which is a GPS module with the receiver antenna, it is used for accurate timestamping. The analog front end has been already developed, it comprises of an anti aliasing filter ,Low Noise Amplifiers and level shifters which can provide the signal with necessary gain to be processed by the digital section. The output of the analog front end is then fed to the NI 9223 four channel ADC module for sampling at 1MS/s. The samples along with their respective timestamps would be processed for identifying probable lightning data chunks on a preliminary basis which would then be transmitted over an Ethernet interface to the Central Processing system using Network Streams. The proposed digital design implementation for the entire acquisition system on the FPGA is briefly discussed in this paper
Abstract— In this paper we are going to develop of a new energy efficient communication scheme for wireless sensor network (WSN) which is based on the gray code technique. Gray code technique simultaneously saves energy at both the transmitter as well as receiver because time required for the transmission of is minimum. Wireless sensor networks typically require low cost devices and low power operations. We propose a new energy efficient communication scheme for wireless sensor networks that is based on the ternary number system encoding of data.0 and 1 bit values are known as energy based transmission scheme. In wireless sensor network it is very difficult to charge or replace the usable batteries. So, to maximize node or network life span is very important. Thus energy efficient communication is main objective of WSN. This energy efficient communication technique can be used in many sectors such as remote healthcare, wireless sensor network for agricultures, industrial process monitoring and environmental monitoring.
Performance analysis of radar based on ds bpsk modulation techniqueIAEME Publication
This document summarizes the performance of a radar system based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation. It describes the DSSS-BPSK modulation technique, the radar model implemented in MATLAB/Simulink, and simulation results. Key findings include that bit error rate decreases as the signal-to-noise ratio increases, detection range varies with chip rate, and the system can accurately detect targets from 20cm to 8m distance.
The application wavelet transform algorithm in testing adc effective number o...ijcsit
In evaluating Analog to Digital Convertors, many parameters are checked for performance and error rate.
One of these parameters is the device Effective Number of Bits. In classical testing of Effective Number of
Bits, testing is based on signal to noise components ratio (SNR), whose coefficients are driven via
frequency domain (Fourier Transform) of ADC’s output signal. Such a technique is extremely sensitive to
noise and require large number of data samples. That is, longer and more complex testing process as the
device under test increases in resolutions. Meanwhile, a new time – frequency domain approach (known as
Wavelet transform) is proposed to measure and analyze Analog-to-Digital Converters parameter of
Effective Number of Bits with less complexity and fewer data samples.
Similar to Improve performance of the digital sinusoidal generator in FPGA by memory usage optimization (20)
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Neural network optimizer of proportional-integral-differential controller par...IJECEIAES
Wide application of proportional-integral-differential (PID)-regulator in industry requires constant improvement of methods of its parameters adjustment. The paper deals with the issues of optimization of PID-regulator parameters with the use of neural network technology methods. A methodology for choosing the architecture (structure) of neural network optimizer is proposed, which consists in determining the number of layers, the number of neurons in each layer, as well as the form and type of activation function. Algorithms of neural network training based on the application of the method of minimizing the mismatch between the regulated value and the target value are developed. The method of back propagation of gradients is proposed to select the optimal training rate of neurons of the neural network. The neural network optimizer, which is a superstructure of the linear PID controller, allows increasing the regulation accuracy from 0.23 to 0.09, thus reducing the power consumption from 65% to 53%. The results of the conducted experiments allow us to conclude that the created neural superstructure may well become a prototype of an automatic voltage regulator (AVR)-type industrial controller for tuning the parameters of the PID controller.
An improved modulation technique suitable for a three level flying capacitor ...IJECEIAES
This research paper introduces an innovative modulation technique for controlling a 3-level flying capacitor multilevel inverter (FCMLI), aiming to streamline the modulation process in contrast to conventional methods. The proposed
simplified modulation technique paves the way for more straightforward and
efficient control of multilevel inverters, enabling their widespread adoption and
integration into modern power electronic systems. Through the amalgamation of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) with a high-frequency square wave
pulse, this controlling technique attains energy equilibrium across the coupling
capacitor. The modulation scheme incorporates a simplified switching pattern
and a decreased count of voltage references, thereby simplifying the control
algorithm.
A review on features and methods of potential fishing zoneIJECEIAES
This review focuses on the importance of identifying potential fishing zones in seawater for sustainable fishing practices. It explores features like sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface height (SSH), along with classification methods such as classifiers. The features like SST, SSH, and different classifiers used to classify the data, have been figured out in this review study. This study underscores the importance of examining potential fishing zones using advanced analytical techniques. It thoroughly explores the methodologies employed by researchers, covering both past and current approaches. The examination centers on data characteristics and the application of classification algorithms for classification of potential fishing zones. Furthermore, the prediction of potential fishing zones relies significantly on the effectiveness of classification algorithms. Previous research has assessed the performance of models like support vector machines, naïve Bayes, and artificial neural networks (ANN). In the previous result, the results of support vector machine (SVM) were 97.6% more accurate than naive Bayes's 94.2% to classify test data for fisheries classification. By considering the recent works in this area, several recommendations for future works are presented to further improve the performance of the potential fishing zone models, which is important to the fisheries community.
Electrical signal interference minimization using appropriate core material f...IJECEIAES
As demand for smaller, quicker, and more powerful devices rises, Moore's law is strictly followed. The industry has worked hard to make little devices that boost productivity. The goal is to optimize device density. Scientists are reducing connection delays to improve circuit performance. This helped them understand three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) concepts, which stack active devices and create vertical connections to diminish latency and lower interconnects. Electrical involvement is a big worry with 3D integrates circuits. Researchers have developed and tested through silicon via (TSV) and substrates to decrease electrical wave involvement. This study illustrates a novel noise coupling reduction method using several electrical involvement models. A 22% drop in electrical involvement from wave-carrying to victim TSVs introduces this new paradigm and improves system performance even at higher THz frequencies.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
Bibliometric analysis highlighting the role of women in addressing climate ch...IJECEIAES
Fossil fuel consumption increased quickly, contributing to climate change
that is evident in unusual flooding and draughts, and global warming. Over
the past ten years, women's involvement in society has grown dramatically,
and they succeeded in playing a noticeable role in reducing climate change.
A bibliometric analysis of data from the last ten years has been carried out to
examine the role of women in addressing the climate change. The analysis's
findings discussed the relevant to the sustainable development goals (SDGs),
particularly SDG 7 and SDG 13. The results considered contributions made
by women in the various sectors while taking geographic dispersion into
account. The bibliometric analysis delves into topics including women's
leadership in environmental groups, their involvement in policymaking, their
contributions to sustainable development projects, and the influence of
gender diversity on attempts to mitigate climate change. This study's results
highlight how women have influenced policies and actions related to climate
change, point out areas of research deficiency and recommendations on how
to increase role of the women in addressing the climate change and
achieving sustainability. To achieve more successful results, this initiative
aims to highlight the significance of gender equality and encourage
inclusivity in climate change decision-making processes.
Voltage and frequency control of microgrid in presence of micro-turbine inter...IJECEIAES
The active and reactive load changes have a significant impact on voltage
and frequency. In this paper, in order to stabilize the microgrid (MG) against
load variations in islanding mode, the active and reactive power of all
distributed generators (DGs), including energy storage (battery), diesel
generator, and micro-turbine, are controlled. The micro-turbine generator is
connected to MG through a three-phase to three-phase matrix converter, and
the droop control method is applied for controlling the voltage and
frequency of MG. In addition, a method is introduced for voltage and
frequency control of micro-turbines in the transition state from gridconnected mode to islanding mode. A novel switching strategy of the matrix
converter is used for converting the high-frequency output voltage of the
micro-turbine to the grid-side frequency of the utility system. Moreover,
using the switching strategy, the low-order harmonics in the output current
and voltage are not produced, and consequently, the size of the output filter
would be reduced. In fact, the suggested control strategy is load-independent
and has no frequency conversion restrictions. The proposed approach for
voltage and frequency regulation demonstrates exceptional performance and
favorable response across various load alteration scenarios. The suggested
strategy is examined in several scenarios in the MG test systems, and the
simulation results are addressed.
Enhancing battery system identification: nonlinear autoregressive modeling fo...IJECEIAES
Precisely characterizing Li-ion batteries is essential for optimizing their
performance, enhancing safety, and prolonging their lifespan across various
applications, such as electric vehicles and renewable energy systems. This
article introduces an innovative nonlinear methodology for system
identification of a Li-ion battery, employing a nonlinear autoregressive with
exogenous inputs (NARX) model. The proposed approach integrates the
benefits of nonlinear modeling with the adaptability of the NARX structure,
facilitating a more comprehensive representation of the intricate
electrochemical processes within the battery. Experimental data collected
from a Li-ion battery operating under diverse scenarios are employed to
validate the effectiveness of the proposed methodology. The identified
NARX model exhibits superior accuracy in predicting the battery's behavior
compared to traditional linear models. This study underscores the
importance of accounting for nonlinearities in battery modeling, providing
insights into the intricate relationships between state-of-charge, voltage, and
current under dynamic conditions.
Smart grid deployment: from a bibliometric analysis to a surveyIJECEIAES
Smart grids are one of the last decades' innovations in electrical energy.
They bring relevant advantages compared to the traditional grid and
significant interest from the research community. Assessing the field's
evolution is essential to propose guidelines for facing new and future smart
grid challenges. In addition, knowing the main technologies involved in the
deployment of smart grids (SGs) is important to highlight possible
shortcomings that can be mitigated by developing new tools. This paper
contributes to the research trends mentioned above by focusing on two
objectives. First, a bibliometric analysis is presented to give an overview of
the current research level about smart grid deployment. Second, a survey of
the main technological approaches used for smart grid implementation and
their contributions are highlighted. To that effect, we searched the Web of
Science (WoS), and the Scopus databases. We obtained 5,663 documents
from WoS and 7,215 from Scopus on smart grid implementation or
deployment. With the extraction limitation in the Scopus database, 5,872 of
the 7,215 documents were extracted using a multi-step process. These two
datasets have been analyzed using a bibliometric tool called bibliometrix.
The main outputs are presented with some recommendations for future
research.
Use of analytical hierarchy process for selecting and prioritizing islanding ...IJECEIAES
One of the problems that are associated to power systems is islanding
condition, which must be rapidly and properly detected to prevent any
negative consequences on the system's protection, stability, and security.
This paper offers a thorough overview of several islanding detection
strategies, which are divided into two categories: classic approaches,
including local and remote approaches, and modern techniques, including
techniques based on signal processing and computational intelligence.
Additionally, each approach is compared and assessed based on several
factors, including implementation costs, non-detected zones, declining
power quality, and response times using the analytical hierarchy process
(AHP). The multi-criteria decision-making analysis shows that the overall
weight of passive methods (24.7%), active methods (7.8%), hybrid methods
(5.6%), remote methods (14.5%), signal processing-based methods (26.6%),
and computational intelligent-based methods (20.8%) based on the
comparison of all criteria together. Thus, it can be seen from the total weight
that hybrid approaches are the least suitable to be chosen, while signal
processing-based methods are the most appropriate islanding detection
method to be selected and implemented in power system with respect to the
aforementioned factors. Using Expert Choice software, the proposed
hierarchy model is studied and examined.
Enhancing of single-stage grid-connected photovoltaic system using fuzzy logi...IJECEIAES
The power generated by photovoltaic (PV) systems is influenced by
environmental factors. This variability hampers the control and utilization of
solar cells' peak output. In this study, a single-stage grid-connected PV
system is designed to enhance power quality. Our approach employs fuzzy
logic in the direct power control (DPC) of a three-phase voltage source
inverter (VSI), enabling seamless integration of the PV connected to the
grid. Additionally, a fuzzy logic-based maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) controller is adopted, which outperforms traditional methods like
incremental conductance (INC) in enhancing solar cell efficiency and
minimizing the response time. Moreover, the inverter's real-time active and
reactive power is directly managed to achieve a unity power factor (UPF).
The system's performance is assessed through MATLAB/Simulink
implementation, showing marked improvement over conventional methods,
particularly in steady-state and varying weather conditions. For solar
irradiances of 500 and 1,000 W/m2
, the results show that the proposed
method reduces the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the injected current
to the grid by approximately 46% and 38% compared to conventional
methods, respectively. Furthermore, we compare the simulation results with
IEEE standards to evaluate the system's grid compatibility.
Enhancing photovoltaic system maximum power point tracking with fuzzy logic-b...IJECEIAES
Photovoltaic systems have emerged as a promising energy resource that
caters to the future needs of society, owing to their renewable, inexhaustible,
and cost-free nature. The power output of these systems relies on solar cell
radiation and temperature. In order to mitigate the dependence on
atmospheric conditions and enhance power tracking, a conventional
approach has been improved by integrating various methods. To optimize
the generation of electricity from solar systems, the maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) technique is employed. To overcome limitations such as
steady-state voltage oscillations and improve transient response, two
traditional MPPT methods, namely fuzzy logic controller (FLC) and perturb
and observe (P&O), have been modified. This research paper aims to
simulate and validate the step size of the proposed modified P&O and FLC
techniques within the MPPT algorithm using MATLAB/Simulink for
efficient power tracking in photovoltaic systems.
Adaptive synchronous sliding control for a robot manipulator based on neural ...IJECEIAES
Robot manipulators have become important equipment in production lines, medical fields, and transportation. Improving the quality of trajectory tracking for
robot hands is always an attractive topic in the research community. This is a
challenging problem because robot manipulators are complex nonlinear systems
and are often subject to fluctuations in loads and external disturbances. This
article proposes an adaptive synchronous sliding control scheme to improve trajectory tracking performance for a robot manipulator. The proposed controller
ensures that the positions of the joints track the desired trajectory, synchronize
the errors, and significantly reduces chattering. First, the synchronous tracking
errors and synchronous sliding surfaces are presented. Second, the synchronous
tracking error dynamics are determined. Third, a robust adaptive control law is
designed,the unknown components of the model are estimated online by the neural network, and the parameters of the switching elements are selected by fuzzy
logic. The built algorithm ensures that the tracking and approximation errors
are ultimately uniformly bounded (UUB). Finally, the effectiveness of the constructed algorithm is demonstrated through simulation and experimental results.
Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed controller is effective with small synchronous tracking errors, and the chattering phenomenon is
significantly reduced.
Remote field-programmable gate array laboratory for signal acquisition and de...IJECEIAES
A remote laboratory utilizing field-programmable gate array (FPGA) technologies enhances students’ learning experience anywhere and anytime in embedded system design. Existing remote laboratories prioritize hardware access and visual feedback for observing board behavior after programming, neglecting comprehensive debugging tools to resolve errors that require internal signal acquisition. This paper proposes a novel remote embeddedsystem design approach targeting FPGA technologies that are fully interactive via a web-based platform. Our solution provides FPGA board access and debugging capabilities beyond the visual feedback provided by existing remote laboratories. We implemented a lab module that allows users to seamlessly incorporate into their FPGA design. The module minimizes hardware resource utilization while enabling the acquisition of a large number of data samples from the signal during the experiments by adaptively compressing the signal prior to data transmission. The results demonstrate an average compression ratio of 2.90 across three benchmark signals, indicating efficient signal acquisition and effective debugging and analysis. This method allows users to acquire more data samples than conventional methods. The proposed lab allows students to remotely test and debug their designs, bridging the gap between theory and practice in embedded system design.
Detecting and resolving feature envy through automated machine learning and m...IJECEIAES
Efficiently identifying and resolving code smells enhances software project quality. This paper presents a novel solution, utilizing automated machine learning (AutoML) techniques, to detect code smells and apply move method refactoring. By evaluating code metrics before and after refactoring, we assessed its impact on coupling, complexity, and cohesion. Key contributions of this research include a unique dataset for code smell classification and the development of models using AutoGluon for optimal performance. Furthermore, the study identifies the top 20 influential features in classifying feature envy, a well-known code smell, stemming from excessive reliance on external classes. We also explored how move method refactoring addresses feature envy, revealing reduced coupling and complexity, and improved cohesion, ultimately enhancing code quality. In summary, this research offers an empirical, data-driven approach, integrating AutoML and move method refactoring to optimize software project quality. Insights gained shed light on the benefits of refactoring on code quality and the significance of specific features in detecting feature envy. Future research can expand to explore additional refactoring techniques and a broader range of code metrics, advancing software engineering practices and standards.
Smart monitoring technique for solar cell systems using internet of things ba...IJECEIAES
Rapidly and remotely monitoring and receiving the solar cell systems status parameters, solar irradiance, temperature, and humidity, are critical issues in enhancement their efficiency. Hence, in the present article an improved smart prototype of internet of things (IoT) technique based on embedded system through NodeMCU ESP8266 (ESP-12E) was carried out experimentally. Three different regions at Egypt; Luxor, Cairo, and El-Beheira cities were chosen to study their solar irradiance profile, temperature, and humidity by the proposed IoT system. The monitoring data of solar irradiance, temperature, and humidity were live visualized directly by Ubidots through hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) protocol. The measured solar power radiation in Luxor, Cairo, and El-Beheira ranged between 216-1000, 245-958, and 187-692 W/m 2 respectively during the solar day. The accuracy and rapidity of obtaining monitoring results using the proposed IoT system made it a strong candidate for application in monitoring solar cell systems. On the other hand, the obtained solar power radiation results of the three considered regions strongly candidate Luxor and Cairo as suitable places to build up a solar cells system station rather than El-Beheira.
An efficient security framework for intrusion detection and prevention in int...IJECEIAES
Over the past few years, the internet of things (IoT) has advanced to connect billions of smart devices to improve quality of life. However, anomalies or malicious intrusions pose several security loopholes, leading to performance degradation and threat to data security in IoT operations. Thereby, IoT security systems must keep an eye on and restrict unwanted events from occurring in the IoT network. Recently, various technical solutions based on machine learning (ML) models have been derived towards identifying and restricting unwanted events in IoT. However, most ML-based approaches are prone to miss-classification due to inappropriate feature selection. Additionally, most ML approaches applied to intrusion detection and prevention consider supervised learning, which requires a large amount of labeled data to be trained. Consequently, such complex datasets are impossible to source in a large network like IoT. To address this problem, this proposed study introduces an efficient learning mechanism to strengthen the IoT security aspects. The proposed algorithm incorporates supervised and unsupervised approaches to improve the learning models for intrusion detection and mitigation. Compared with the related works, the experimental outcome shows that the model performs well in a benchmark dataset. It accomplishes an improved detection accuracy of approximately 99.21%.
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Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
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china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
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In fact, there are different ways of developing and implementing the signal generator in FPGA. One
of the popular methods is to generate signals by using the Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS), a technique
which is able to produce output signals with high-frequency range and accurate frequency adjustment. In this
technique, the analog output signal is produced by generating the time-varying signal in a digital form, then
converted into the analog signal via digital-to-analog conversion. Its principle is to vary the frequency of the
clock, which is used to read the pre-calculated waveform amplitude data digitally stored in a memory.
Then, the data which have been read is converted to become the analog signal [6]-[8].
Meanwhile, research in [9] proposed a method which is almost similar to the DDS technique.
However, the frequency of the operating clock is fixed and the generated signal frequency is tunable simply
by adjusting the incremental step value of the address counter in the proposed signal generator.
Besides, research in [10] had implemented the waveform generator in Xilinx Virtex II FPGA,
by using the embedded microprocessor. In this research, a soft processor called MicroBlaze, which control
the system operation, is interfaced to peripherals such as memories and DAC. However, to achieve high-
bandwidth signal generator, it is required to use high-end FPGA such as Virtex FPGA which cost very
expensive.
This paper presents the improvement of the performance of the digital sinusoidal generator which
was developed and implemented in FPGA. The improvement was able to be made by optimization the usage
of the available memory resources on-board. In this proposed research, the sine wave is generated by using
the lookup table method, where the pre-calculated signal data are stored in a memory and the signal
frequency is adjustable by modifying the value of the address counter incremental steps. The sine wave can
be configurable within a range of 1 kHz to 10 MHz, with the frequency resolution of 1 kHz. In this paper, no
digital-to-analog conversion is involved and thus, the proposed research produced the digital sine wave with
accurate frequency.
2. SINE WAVE GENERATION METHOD
2.1. Lookup table
The lookup table contains the data which represent the samples of the sine waveform, which was
pre-calculated offline by using a data processing tool like the Microsoft Excel. In the previous research [9],
the lookup table was utilized to stored 20000 16-bit data, which represents the 1 kHz sine waveform data
sampled at every 50 ns. Thus, all the 20000 sampling will make a complete cycle with a period of 1 Ms.
However, in this proposed research, the lookup table contains 25000 data which was sampled from only the
first quarter of a complete cycle of a sine wave. As the matter of fact, this is doable owing to the
characteristic of a sine wave which is symmetric.
By looking at the wave in Figure 1, the region 2 of the wave is symmetric to the region 1, while the
region 3 and region 4 are symmetric to the region 1 and region 2 with respect to the x-axis, respectively.
Therefore, the region 2 of the waveform can be obtained simply by counting down, instead of counting up,
the memory address counter, from the maximum to the minimum address of the lookup table. While the
waveform in region 3 and region 4 are simply the negation of the values obtained from the region 1 and
region 2, respectively.
Figure 1. The four regions of a sine wave
Owing to this, the memory resources utilization can be optimized and in this case, since a quarter of
the sine waveform is represented by 25000 data, there are in fact a total of 100000 data samples for the
complete cycle of the sine wave. In addition, every pre-calculated data stored in this lookup table are written
only in 13 bits. Therefore, in the case where its amplitude is adjustable by +/-10, a 16-bit output signal shall
be enough to encode the maximum or the minimum value of the generated signal.
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2.2. Memory initialization in FPGA
In order to use the onboard memory in the FPGA board, a memory initialization file is needed.
This file contains the necessary information such as the memory depth, the size of each data, and also the
data to be stored in the memory which can be written either in binary or hexadecimal format. For this
research purpose, the type of memory used is the Read-Only Memory (ROM) because all the data stored in
the memory are pre-calculated and their values shall remain unchanged when the system is operated.
2.3. Memory address counter
All the data stored in the lookup table can be accessed by using their addresses as shown in Table 1.
In this proposed system, a memory address counter is used to increase the address value at every clock cycle.
The counter behavior depends on the region of the sine waveform, as shown in Figure 1. It will count up until
it reaches or almost reaches the maximum address in region 1 and region 3, while it will count down until it
reaches or almost reaches the minimum address in region 3 and region 4.
Table 1. The Lookup Table for Sine Wave Generation
Address Data
0 0
1 2
2 4
… …
12499 3275
12500 3276
12501 3275
… …
24997 6
24998 4
24999 2
Here, the choice of the clock frequency is substantial in order to produce accurate signal frequency
at the output. As previously mentioned, the base signal frequency for the proposed system is Fbase=1 kHz.
Hence, the base period Tbase=1 ms. Therefore, in order to determine the sampling clock period:
where n is the number of samples. Hence, when n is equal to 100000 samples, the sampling clock period
shall be equal to 10 ns. Subsequently, a 100 MHz sampling clock must be used. In this case, at every 10 ns,
the address counter value will be changed by an incremental step value, which is equal to the frequency of
the sine wave to be generated in kHz. For example, in order to produce a 500 kHz sine wave, the address
counter must be increased or decreased by 500 at every sampling clock cycle.
3. PROPOSED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Figure 2 illustrates the block diagram of the proposed system for generating sine wave digitally in
FPGA. In fact, it consists three main blocks: phase-lock loop (PLL), address counter and sine wave table.
In this project, the PLL block serves as the clock frequency multiplier. As the matter of fact, the frequency of
the clock oscillator which is available on the FPGA board used is 50MHz. Therefore, in order to produce a
100 MHz clock signal as the sampling clock (clk_100MHz), the frequency of the 50 MHz clock (sys_clk)
needs to be multiplied by 2 by using the PLL block.
The sampling clock from the PLL is connected to both the address counter and the sine wave table.
The former will increase or decrease the address by the step value it receives from the external. Next, the new
value of the address is passed to the latter in order to access the sine wave data which had been stored inside.
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Figure 2. The block diagram which represents the proposed system architecture
The address counter operation is controlled by two finite state machines. The first state machine is
essential to generate the correct memory address and also the output signal value sign, depending on the
region of the waveform. Figure 3 depicts the state diagram of the state machine, which is consisted of four
states, which represent the four regions: ONE, TWO, THREE and FOUR.
In state ONE, the address starts from 0 and it will be increased by step value at each clock cycle.
Once the sum of its current address and the step value is larger than or equal to the maximum memory
address, which is 24999, the state machine is transiting to state TWO. At this state, the counter will decrease
the address by the step value, the subtraction of the current address and the step value is lesser or equal to 0,
where the state machine is transiting to state THREE. The same producers take place for the transition from
state THREE to FOUR and from state FOUR to ONE. In addition, during states THREE and FOUR, the data
read from the memory will be multiplied by -1 in order to have the negative value of the generated sine wave.
Figure 3. The finite state machine to determine the counter behavior based on the region
While the second state machine, as shown in Figure 4, is used to ensure that the system will generate
correct and accurate signal output whenever the step value is updated. This state machine has three different
states: COUNT, UPDATE and RESET. In COUNT state, the address counter is in its normal operation,
where it increases or decreased the address by the given step value. Then, when the step value is changing,
the state machine will update the new count step value in UPDATE state, and it will reset back the address
value to 0 in the RESET state. It will stay in this state for 50 ns before transiting to the COUNT state, where
the address counter resumes its normal operation with the newly updated count step value.
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Figure 4. The finite state machine which controls the address counter operation when
the step value is updated
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The proposed design was successfully developed by using Verilog HDL code. In order to validate
the correctness of the proposed system functionalities, both functional simulation and hardware experimental
tests are performed. In both cases, validation was executed on four different sets of desired frequency values:
125 kHz, 667 kHz, 2000 kHz, and 7500 kHz.
4.1. Functional simulation
In this research, the simulation was executed by using Mentor Graphic ModelSim Altera Edition
software. Before running the simulation, the testbench for the tests was written in Verilog. Figure 5 shows the
results of the functional simulation with five different frequency values. From these waveforms, the output
signal frequencies can be obtained by measuring the period of each signal using two different cursors.
The measured frequencies are then compared to the desired frequencies, as listed in Table 2. Based on this
observation, the frequency of the generated sine wave was very accurate for the first three signals. However,
it produced a small error of 1kHz (0.2%) when generating the 7500 kHz sine wave.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. The waveform results for functional simulation by using different frequency values:
(a) 125 kHz, (b) 667 kHz, (c) 2 MHz, (d) 7.5 MHz
Table 2. Comparison between Desired Frequency vs Measured Frequency
Desired Frequency Measured Period Measured Frequency
125 kHz 8000.0 ns 125.0 kHz
667 kHz 1499.5 ns 666.9 kHz
2000 kHz 500.0 ns 2000.0 kHz
7500 kHz 133.3 ns 7501 kHz
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4.2. Hardware experimental test
The developed Verilog code for the proposed design was successfully compiled by Altera Quartus II
software and then implemented in Altera Cyclone III DE0 FPGA development board. In addition, since there
is no digital-to-analog converter involved in this research, the generated output signal was observed and
analyzed by using the SignalTap II Logic Analyzer. The hardware experimental setup as shown in Figure 6.
The output results of the hardware experimental tests in FPGA are shown in Figure 7. By using the
same method used in the simulation, the period of the generated output sine waves are measured and thus,
the generated signal frequencies can be obtained and then compared with their expected values. It can be
observed that the results obtained from the hardware experimental test are the same as the functional
simulation, as previously shown in Table 2.
Figure 6. The hardware experimental setup
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 7. The waveform results from the FPGA hardware test observed in SignalTap Logic Analyzer by
using different frequency values: (a) 125 kHz, (b) 667 kHz, (c) 2 MHz, (d) 7.5 MHz
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As the matter of fact, the small precision errors for high-frequency generated signal observed in the
hardware experimental tests are due to the limitation of the utilized tools: since the generated signal is a
discrete signal which had been sampled every 10 ns, the time unit resolution is limited only to 10 ns. Hence,
for the 7.5 MHz sine wave, the time interval for a period of the signal is shown as 130 ns, instead of 133 ns.
Table 3 shows the number of the hardware resources used in the proposed research, which was
obtained from the generated compilation report in Altera Quartus II software.
Table 3. FPGA Hardware Resources Utilization for Proposed System Implementation
Design
Hardware Resource Usage
Logic Elements Register Onboard Memory PLL Block
Proposed design without SignalTap 190 (1.2%) 23 (0.1 %) 325000 (63.0%) 1 (25.0%)
Proposed design with SignalTap 1008 (7.0%) 739 (4.8.0%) 435592 (84.4%) 1 (25.0%)
While Table 4 compares the overall performance of the proposed system with the previous work [9].
As can be seen from this table, the former consume lesser logic elements than the latter, but its memory
utilization is a little bit higher (by 1% more) than the latter. However, the frequency range supported by the
former, which is between 1 kHz to 10 MHz, is much better than the latter, which can only generate a signal
ranging from 1 kHz to 1 MHz.
Table 4. Comparison Between Proposed System Vs Previous Work
Design Memory Utilization (bits) Logic Elements Sampling Rate (MHz) Frequency Range
Proposed System 325000 (63.0%) 190 (1.2%) 100 1 kHz – 10 MHz
Previous Work 320000 (6.0%) 240 (1.5%) 20 1 kHz – 1 MHz
For further improvements, in order to improve the test and validation of the generated signal, a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) could be added at the output and thus, the output signal can be visualized
by using the oscilloscope, a tool that is normally capable of measuring the frequency of the signal more
accurately. Besides, the total harmonic distortion of the generated signal could also be analyzed in order to
verify its frequency purity.
Moreover, more features need to be added to this proposed design to make it more useful to users.
For example, common signal types like triangle, sawtooth and pulse may be added as an option. Besides,
functionalities such as amplitude and phase adjustment will be very useful in many applications.
Furthermore, it is also possible to have a multi-channel function generator, where two or more signals can be
generated simultaneously. But, this one may depend on the FPGA device capabilities in term of hardware
resources.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper has discussed on the improvement of the implementation of the digital sine wave
generator in FPGA, which had been achieved by optimizing the memory resources utilization. In this
proposed research, the generated frequency accuracy and also its frequency range was improved by
increasing the number of samples for one period of the signal and thus, increasing its sampling rate. This was
achievable owing to the symmetric characteristic of the sine wave and thus, only the first quarter the signal
need to be sampled and stored in the memory. The proposed research had been successfully implemented in
Altera Cyclone III DE0 FPGA and the correctness of its functionality had been verified by using both the
functional simulation and also the FPGA hardware experimental test, where the output produced by the latter
was observed in SignalTap II Logic Analyzer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) and the Malaysia
Ministry of Higher Education for the financial funding under Grant No. FRGS/1/2015/TK04/FTK/03/F00285
and providing instrumentation devices support for this project.
8. Int J Elec & Comp Eng ISSN: 2088-8708
Improve performance of the digital sinusoidal generator in FPGA… (Aiman Zakwan Jidin)
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Aiman Zakwan Jidin obtained his MEng in Electronic and Microelectronic System Engineering
from ESIEE Engineering Paris France in 2011. He has 2 years of working experience in designing
digital IC and digital system in FPGA at Altera Corporation Malaysia, before joining Universiti
Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) as lecturer and researcher, in Electronics and Computer
Engineering. His research interests include FPGA Design and Digital System Design
Irna Nadira Mahzan is currently in her final year of studies in Bachelor of Computer Engineering
Technology in Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM). Recently, she had been working on
the development of a low-cost portable signal generator by using FPGA as her final year project.
Currently, she is undergoing her final year internship at UTAC Manufacturing Services Sdn Bhd,
which is expected to be completed in July 2018.
A Shamsul Rahimi A Subki obtained his MSc in Microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia in 2011. He has 2 years of working experience as Photolithography and Wet Etching
Process Engineer at ON Semiconductor Malaysia and as Process Integration Engineer at SilTerra
Malaysia focusing on maintaining process parameters for CMOS 0.16 nm technology, before
joining Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) as lecturer and researcher, in Electronics and
Computer Engineering. His research interests include CMOS process flow optimization and
characterization, and power electronics.
Wan Haszerila Wan Hassan holds a Master of Electrical, Electronic & Telecommunication
Engineering from UTM and Bachelor of Electrical & Electronic Engineering from UTM. She has
previous working experience in semiconductor industry at Infineon Technologies Malaysia. She
join Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) as lecturer on 2014. Her research area includes
Photonics, Optical Communication and Wireless Communication.