This slide covers briefly how intracellular and extracellular bacteria elicits an immune response, how bacteria evade from the immune system, what complement system is, opsonization, neutralisation, septic shock, sepsis, superantigens, phagocytosis, interleukins, Toll-like receptors, a list of diseases caused by bacterias and their names etc.
Host pathogen interactions - This presentation is about the Host pathogen interaction played between bacteria virus and the human body and it also explains about the different protein and enzymes secreted by pathogens to cause infection and diseases in human like the release of endotoxin and exotoxin.
The complement system is a part of the immune system that helps or complements the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
consists of three pathways: 1. alternative
2. classical
3. lectin pathway
Immune response during bacterial, parasitic and viral infection.pptxVanshikaVarshney5
when a pathogen attacks on our body how's our body react to it?
this presentation is all about that.
How the immune respone to the parasite, virus or bacteria and save our body.
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
this slide can help you to know full details about the major type of antigen based on its activity on B or T cell. This slide consists of images to clarify your doubts
Developing vaccines against infectious and epidemic diseases with the aid of Bioinformatics is now possible, by predicting epitopes on an antigen and finding possible targets for the antibody to bind. A new era of vaccine production is just ahead of us.
Watch out the ppt to know more!!!
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
Host pathogen interactions - This presentation is about the Host pathogen interaction played between bacteria virus and the human body and it also explains about the different protein and enzymes secreted by pathogens to cause infection and diseases in human like the release of endotoxin and exotoxin.
The complement system is a part of the immune system that helps or complements the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
consists of three pathways: 1. alternative
2. classical
3. lectin pathway
Immune response during bacterial, parasitic and viral infection.pptxVanshikaVarshney5
when a pathogen attacks on our body how's our body react to it?
this presentation is all about that.
How the immune respone to the parasite, virus or bacteria and save our body.
Mechanism of pathogenicity-Exotoxin and endotoxinaiswarya thomas
Brief description on mechanisms of pathogenicity, actions of toxins produced by various bacteria and notable endotoxins and exotoxins. Mechanism of action of some of the commonest endotoxins and exotoxins are explained.
this slide can help you to know full details about the major type of antigen based on its activity on B or T cell. This slide consists of images to clarify your doubts
Developing vaccines against infectious and epidemic diseases with the aid of Bioinformatics is now possible, by predicting epitopes on an antigen and finding possible targets for the antibody to bind. A new era of vaccine production is just ahead of us.
Watch out the ppt to know more!!!
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
Buyers no longer use voicemails and emails from strangers to learn about products. This information is online, whenever buyers are interested. This SlideShare presentation show sellers how to connect in a meaningful way by starting conversations around the buyer’s plans, goals and challenges.
This presentation is one class in HubSpot Academy's free sales training course. You can enroll here: http://certification.hubspot.com/inbound-sales-certification
Modern Prospecting Techniques for Connecting with Prospects (from Sales Hacke...HubSpot
Sales is a difficult world to be in because buyers aren't putting up with salespeople anymore. Instead of helping and building relationships, sales reps are still focused on closing prospects - even when they aren't ready to buy! So buyers ignore them. Because of that, even great sales reps would be lucky to get on the phone with someone.
While buyers have evolved and become more sophisticated, sales reps and training programs have been slow to adapt to that change.
Learn actionable modern prospecting techniques you can apply immediately from two best selling authors and sales experts: Max Altschuler CEO of Sales Hacker, and Mark Roberge CRO of HubSpot.
Why People Block Ads (And What It Means for Marketers and Advertisers) [New R...HubSpot
HubSpot Research shares new data on why people use ad blockers and what marketers and advertisers need to do to keep people from blocking out ads completely. Hint: it's stop using interruptive and annoying ads.
3 Proven Sales Email Templates Used by Successful CompaniesHubSpot
76% of emails never get opened. That makes life for salespeople very difficult. So we've partnered up with Breakthrough Email to bring you email templates that are proven to engage prospects and close more deals. Start using them today and grow your revenue.
The lack of visible female role models is pervasive in the tech industry, particularly on Wikipedia, where just under 17% of Wikipedia biographies were on women. That's why HubSpot wrote fourteen Wikipedia entries for remarkable women in tech to help inspire young women to reach positions at the highest levels of STEM.
Drive your Docs with Data - Conduit Conference 2017Ed Marsh
We’re all looking for ways to improve the customer experience. A simple place to start is to use the various forms of data already generated by your content to guide your strategy and architecture. In this session, we’ll look at various sources of data – including your own Web server, Twitter, Facebook, Google analytics, and more – and see how they can improve your documentation and content strategy. We’ll also see how using support tickets can help you better tune-in to your users and create better content.
#conduit17
An essential aspect of the immune response is the ability to recognize almost limitless numbers of foreign cells and nonself substances, distinguishing them from self molecules that are native to the body – it distinguishes self from nonself.
L1 The_Immune_Response immune system is clearly essential for survival. .pptwalealufa
It also detects and responds to abnormal cells and molecules that periodically develop in the body so that diseases such as cancers do not occur.
An essential aspect of the immune response is the ability to recognize almost limitless numbers of foreign cells and nonself substances, distinguishing them from self molecules that are native to the body – it distinguishes self from nonself.
introduction of adaptive immunity. classification of adaptive immunity, factor affecting it and mechanism of adaptive immunity comparison between adaptive immunity and innate immunity. characteristic of adaptive immunity . cell mediated immune responses immunoglobulins
types of immunoglobulins. functions of immunoglobulins, hypersensitivity reactions
Introduction to Protein Families and DatabasesRohit Satyam
The presentation highlights the Protein Families concept, methods used to predict them, and some automated servers for annotation of Hypothetical Proteins
This is a comprehensive account for homology modeling and protein docking do's and dont's. Also, it briefly discusses the modes of research reproducibility one could use.
Bermuda Triangle and Its associated SecretsRohit Satyam
Bermuda Triangle has seen a lot of disappearances of Ships, air crafts, and who knows much more. The presentation focuses on exploring the science and possible reasons behind such disappearances.
Interviews are hard to get through. You often need to be smart enough to influence those on the other side of the table. There is no prescribed format of the DO'S and DONT'S but keeping in mind certain points might surely increase your probability of getting selected.
This includes detailed description of the Cell Cycle and Cell Cycle regulation. Courtesy: Campbell Biology Book, And Dr, Rosemary Redfield Lectures, University of British Columbia.
This presentation is about the advances in Renewable Resources of energy. This includes the innovations in the field of Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Water Energy and Success Stories and Ongoing work worldwide. This is what I call a Technovation.
Imagine that you have been told you have an illness that cannot be cured or what if your body has been irreversibly paralysed. There is no hope. But there is a science that could change that. It’s Called Stem Cell Research and it’s an important step in the medical revolution. But it comes with controversies as it uses Human Embryos’ as Raw Material.
But something astounding happened in the year 2006 that removed the usage of surplus embryos from the equation altogether. It’s about a brand new technology that can turn back the clock on your body cells. This is cutting edge of science where new developments are happing all the time. The iPSCs could be the potential medicine of 21st century. So what are stem cells? Why do they Matter? What are iPSCs and how it changed the biological rules?
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
1. Immunity Against infectious
diseases by Bacteria
NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA
By: Rohit Satyam, 2nd Year, Department of Biotechnology
2. Group Members
1. Aqueel Haider
2.Nishtha Singh
3.Rohit Satyam
4.Srishti Singh
5.Rohit Panchal
Bac . teria: The Back door
of cafeteria.
3. .
IMMUNITY TO EXTRACELLULAR BACTERIA
Extracellular bacteria are capable of replicating outside host
cells, for example, in the blood, in connective tissues, and in
tissue spaces such as the lumens of the airways and
gastrointestinal tract
Disease is caused by two principal mechanisms.
1. First, these bacteria induce inflammation, which results in
tissue destruction at the site of infection.
2. Second, bacteria produce toxins, which have diverse
pathologic effects. The toxins may be endotoxins, which are
components of bacterial cell walls, or exotoxins, which are
secreted by the bacteria. The endotoxin of gram-negative
bacteria, also called lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a potent
activator of macrophages, dendritic cells, and endothelial
cells
4. For instance
1. Diphtheria toxin shuts down protein synthesis
in infected cells.
2. cholera toxin interferes with ion and water
transport.
3. tetanus toxin inhibits neuromuscular
transmission.
4. Anthrax toxin disrupts several critical
biochemical signalling pathways in infected
cells.
5. Innate Immunity to
Extracellular
Bacteria
The principal mechanisms of
innate immunity to
extracellular bacteria are
complement activation,
phagocytosis, and the
inflammatory response.
Fig 1: Phagocytosis
6. 1. Opsonization is a term that refers to an immune
process where particles such as bacteria are targeted
for destruction by an immune cell known as a
phagocyte .
The process of opsonization is a means of identifying
the invading particle to the phagocyte.
Eg: opsonin include: C3b, Antibodies
Know the Technical Jargons First
7.
8. 2. What is the complement system?
Ans: The complement system is a set of over 20 different
protein molecules always found in the blood. There are no
cells in the system. With an infection, this system of
molecules is activated, leading to a sequence of events on
the surface of the pathogen that helps destroy the
pathogen and eliminate the infection.
It activates immune system, kill cells and participate in
opsonisation
9. How is the complement system activated?
It can be activated in two main ways:
1. Classical Pathway: It is the second and most
potent means in a specific immune response
when antibodies (IgG or IgM) binds to antigen at
the surface of a cell. This exposes the Fc region
of the antibody in a way that allows the first
complement protein (C1) to bind.
2. Alternative Pathway: It is the first means of
activation and is a part of the innate immune
response. (i.e.; neither antibodies nor T cell
receptors are involved.) For example, certain
polysaccharides found on the surface of bacteria
can activate the system (by directly binding to
C3b). This can occur immediately and does not
require prior exposure to the molecules.
11. Notice how complement
C3 is cleaved
into C3b and C3a. C3b
remains bound to the
complex at the surface of
the microorganism. This
not only activates the
next step, but also C3b is
a good opsonin. The
small peptide, C3a
diffuses away and acts as
a chemotactic factor and
an inflammatory factors.
Next, complement protein C5 is cleaved into C5b and C5a. The C5b remains bound
to complex on the surface of the cell while the C5a diffuses away and acts much like
C3a.
Classical Pathway
12.
13. What happens as a result of
the activation?
But in either case, a cascade of events follows, in
which each step leads to the next. At the center of
the cascade are steps in which the proteolysis of a
complement protein leads to a smaller protein and
a peptide.
The smaller protein remains bound to the complex
at the surface of the microorganism, while the
peptide diffuses away.
14.
15. 3. What is neutralisation?
Covering an antigen in antibodies make it less
infectious and less pathogenic. Neutralisation
or neutralization in the immunological sense refers
to the ability of specific antibodies to block the
site(s) on bacteria and their toxins or viruses that
they use to enter their target cell.
16. Neutralization is mediated by high-affinity IgG, IgM,
and IgA isotypes, the latter mainly in the lumens of
mucosal organs.
Opsonization is mediated by some subclasses of
IgG, and complement activation is initiated by IgM
and subclasses of IgG.
17. 4. Interleukins
•These are a group of cytokines (secreted proteins and signal molecules) that
were first seen to be expressed by white blood cells (leukocytes).
•The function of the immune system depends in a large part on interleukins,
and rare deficiencies of a number of them have been described, all
featuring autoimmune diseases or immune deficiency. The majority of
interleukins are synthesized by helper CD4 T lymphocytes, as well as
through monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells. They promote the
development and differentiation of T and B lymphocytes,
and hematopoietic cells.
•There are IL1……IL17 families of IL
NOTE: IL-17: differentiation and proliferation of lymphoid progenitor cells,
involved in B, T, and NK cell survival, development, and homeostasis, ↑pro-
inflammatory cytokines
18.
19.
20. •Some surface antigens of bacteria such as gonococci and Escherichia coli are
contained in their pili, which are the structures responsible for bacterial
adhesion to host cells.
•The major antigen of the pili is a protein called pilin. The pilin genes of
gonococci undergo extensive gene conversion, because of which the progeny
of one organism can produce up to 106 antigenically distinct pilin molecules.
•This ability to alter antigens helps the bacteria evade attack by pilin-specific
antibodies, although its principal significance for the bacteria may be to
select for pili that are more adherent to host cells so that the bacteria are
more virulent.
•Changes in the production of glycosidases lead to chemical alterations in
surface LPS and other polysaccharides, which enable the bacteria to evade
humoral immune responses against these antigens.
21.
22. Injurious Effects of Immune Responses to
Extracellular Bacteria
The principal injurious consequences of host responses to
extracellular bacteria are inflammation and septic shock.
Septic shock is a serious medical condition that occurs
when sepsis, which is organ injury or damage in response
to infection, leads to dangerously low blood pressure and
abnormalities in cellular metabolism
23. Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response
to infection injures its own tissues and organs.Common signs and
symptoms include fever, increased heart rate, increased breathing rate,
and confusion
The early phase of septic shock is caused by cytokines produced by
macrophages that are activated by bacterial cell wall components,
including LPS (Lipo-Polysaccharide) and peptidoglycans.
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), IL-6, and IL-1 are the principal cytokine
mediators of septic shock, but IFN-γ (Interferon Gama) and IL-12 may
also contribute.
This early burst of large amounts of cytokines is sometimes called a
cytokine storm.
24. Superantigens (SAgs) :
Are a class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells resulting
in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release. SAgs are produced
by some pathogenic viruses and bacteria most likely as a defence mechanism
against the immune system.
Active T Cells(excess) (Excess)cytokines esp. Interferon gamma (IFN-
ɣ) (Excess) Macrophage Activation pro-inflammatory
cytokines (TNF, IL-1, IL-6)
In normal circumstances it is released locally in low levels and helps the
immune system defeat pathogens. However, when it is systemically released in
the blood and in high levels (due to mass T-cell activation resulting from the
SAg binding), it can cause severe and life-threatening symptoms,
including shock and multiple organ failure.
25.
26.
27.
28. There is some evidence that the progression of septic shock is
associated with defective immune responses, perhaps related to
depletion or suppression of T cells, resulting in unchecked
microbial spread.
29. Immune Evasion by Extracellular Bacteria
They know how to befool your Security System
Bacteria with polysaccharide-rich capsules resist phagocytosis
and are therefore much more virulent than strains lacking a
capsule. The capsules of many pathogenic Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria contain sialic acid residues that inhibit
complement activation by the alternative pathway.
A mechanism used by bacteria to evade humoral immunity is
variation of surface antigens.
30. The innate immune response to intracellular bacteria
is mediated mainly by phagocytes and natural killer
(NK) cells.
Phagocytes, initially neutrophils and later macrophages,
ingest and attempt to destroy these microbes, but
pathogenic intracellular bacteria are resistant to degradation
within phagocytes.
Innate Immunity against Intracellular
Bacteria
31. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of proteins that play a
key role in the innate immune system. They are single,
membrane-spanning, non-catalytic receptors usually
expressed in APCs such as macrophages and dendritic cells
.
Once these microbes have breached physical barriers such
as the skin or intestinal tract mucosa, they are recognized
by TLRs, which activate immune cellresponses.
TLRs
32. Bacteria may enter mammalian cells by phagocytosis or
by facilitating their own uptake, termed invasion. During
the process of phagocytosis or invasion, innate immune
sensors like the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or Nod-like
receptors (NLRs) may be triggered by bacterial ligands.
The signalling pathways activated by TLRs and NLRs have
been extensively reviewed elsewhere and predominantly
lead to expression and activation of pro-inflammatory
cytokines
33. Intracellular bacteria activate NK cells by inducing expression of
NK cell–activating ligands on infected cells and by stimulating
dendritic cell and macrophage production of IL-12 and IL-15,
both of which are NK cell– activating cytokines.
The NK cells produce IFN-γ, which in turn activates
macrophages and promotes killing of the phagocytosed
bacteria.
Thus, NK cells provide an early defense against these microbes,
before the development of adaptive immunity.
34. Adaptive Immunity to Intracellular Bacteria
The major protective immune response against intracellular
bacteria is T cell–mediated recruitment and activation of
phagocytes (cell-mediated immunity).
Individuals with deficient cell-mediated immunity, such as
patients with AIDS, are extremely susceptible to infections with
intracellular bacteria (as well as intracellular fungi and viruses).
35.
36. As we know, T cells provide defence against infections by two
types of reactions:
1. CD4+ T cells activate phagocytes IFN-γ and other factors,
resulting in killing of microbes that are ingested by and
survive within phagocytes. These stimuli activate
macrophages to produce several microbicidal substances,
including reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, and
lysosomal enzymes. CD4+ T cells differentiate into TH1
effectors under the influence of IL, which is produced by
macrophages and dendritic cells.
2. CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) kill infected cells,
eliminating microbes that escape the killing mechanisms of
phagocytes.
37. Phagocytosed bacteria stimulate CD8+ T cell responses if
bacterial antigens are transported from phagosomes into the
cytosol or if the bacteria escape from phagosomes and enter
the cytoplasm of infected cells.
In the cytosol, the microbes are no longer susceptible to the
microbicidal mechanisms of phagocytes, and for eradication of
the infection, the infected cells have to be killed by Cytotoxic
TLs.
Thus, the effectors of cell-mediated immunity, namely, CD4+ T
cells that activate macrophages and CD8+ Cytotoxic TLs,
function cooperatively in defense against intracellular bacteria
38. Immune Evasion by Intracellular Bacteria
Intracellular bacteria have developed various strategies to resist
elimination by phagocytes. These include
1. Inhibiting phagolysosome fusion
2. Escaping into the cytosol, thus hiding from the microbicidal
mechanisms of lysosomes, and directly inactivating microbicidal
substances such as reactive oxygen species.
Resistance to phagocyte-mediated elimination is also the reason that
such bacteria tend to cause chronic infections that may last for years,
often recur after apparent cure, and are difficult to eradicate.
39.
40.
41. Refrences:
1.Wikepedia
2.Abul K. Abbas Andrew H. H. Lichtman Shiv
Pillai-Cellular and Molecular Immunology
3.NCBI
4. McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC