Human reproduction is any form of sexual reproduction resulting in human fertilization. It typically involves sexual intercourse between a man and a woman. During sexual intercourse, the interaction between the male and female reproductive systems results in fertilization of the woman's ovum by the man's sperm.
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies
Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities
Describe the role of hormones in human reproduction
Describe the roles of male and female reproductive hormone
The reproductive events in humans include formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
this is a long study on all aspects of human reproduction & most asked questions about human reproductive system ( medical information ).
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This PPT covers Anatomy and Physiology of Female reproductive system. Anatomy of female reproductive organs, oogenesis, hormonal regulation of ovaries and Female reproductive cycle (Mentrual cycle) are explained.
This PPT covers Anatomy and Physiology of Female reproductive system. Anatomy of female reproductive organs, oogenesis, hormonal regulation of ovaries and Female reproductive cycle (Mentrual cycle) are explained.
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetes to full term.
In testis, the immature male germ cell (spermatogonia ) produce sperms by spermatogenesis
The spermatogonia ( sing. Spermatogonium ) present on the inside of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers
Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes
Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte, which have only 23 chromosomes
The secondary spermatocyte undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids
The female reproductive system provides several functions.
The ovaries produce the egg cells, called the ova or oocytes.
The oocytes are then transported to the fallopian tube where fertilization by a sperm may occur.
The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where the uterine lining has thickened in response to the normal hormones of the reproductive cycle.
Once in the uterus, the fertilized egg can implant into thickened uterine lining and continue to develop.
If implantation does not take place, the uterine lining is shed as menstrual flow.
In addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.
During menopause, the female reproductive system gradually stops making the female hormones necessary for the reproductive cycle to work. At this point, menstrual cycles can become irregular and eventually stop.
One year after menstrual cycles stop, the woman is considered to be menopausal.
This PPT covers Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System. It includes anatomy of male reproductive organs, spermatogenesis and hormonal regulation of testis
The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a fetes to full term.
In testis, the immature male germ cell (spermatogonia ) produce sperms by spermatogenesis
The spermatogonia ( sing. Spermatogonium ) present on the inside of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers
Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes
Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte, which have only 23 chromosomes
The secondary spermatocyte undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids
The female reproductive system provides several functions.
The ovaries produce the egg cells, called the ova or oocytes.
The oocytes are then transported to the fallopian tube where fertilization by a sperm may occur.
The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where the uterine lining has thickened in response to the normal hormones of the reproductive cycle.
Once in the uterus, the fertilized egg can implant into thickened uterine lining and continue to develop.
If implantation does not take place, the uterine lining is shed as menstrual flow.
In addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.
During menopause, the female reproductive system gradually stops making the female hormones necessary for the reproductive cycle to work. At this point, menstrual cycles can become irregular and eventually stop.
One year after menstrual cycles stop, the woman is considered to be menopausal.
This PPT covers Anatomy and Physiology of Male Reproductive System. It includes anatomy of male reproductive organs, spermatogenesis and hormonal regulation of testis
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs —in both males and females —that work together for the purpose of procreating.
Due to its vital role in the survival of the species, many scientists feel that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire body.
The human body’s major systems, the reproductive system is the one that differs most between sexes, and the only system that does not function until puberty.
The reproductive tissues of male and female humans develop similarly in utero until about the seventh week of gestation when a low level of the hormone testosterone is released from the gonads of the developing male. Testosterone causes the primitive gonads to differentiate into male sexual organs. When testosterone is absent, the primitive gonads develop into ovaries. Tissues that produce a penis in males produce a clitoris in females. The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male becomes the labia in a female. Thus the male and female anatomies arise from a divergence in the development of what were once common embryonic structures.
Located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum.
Scrotum provides low temperature required for spermatogenesis.
Each testis is about 4 to 5 cm length and 2 to 3 cm width.
Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
Each lobule contains one to three seminiferous tubules.
Seminiferous tubules lined by male germ cells and Sertoli cells.
Male germ cell undergoes meiosis and produce sperm.
Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cell and the sperm.
In between the seminiferous tubule there is interstitial cell or Leydig
cell.
Leydig cells produce testicular hormones
called androgen (testosteron It is the primary female sex organs that produce the female
gamete (ovum).
It also produces several steroid hormones.
The ovaries located in the lower abdomen.
Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length.
Connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which encloses the
ovarian stroma
The ovarian stroma has two zones
A peripheral cortex.
An inner medulla.
complete human reproduction
At copulation, or sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina, and spermatozoa contained in the seminal fluid (semen) are ejaculated into the female genital tract. Spermatozoa then pass from the vagina through the uterus to the fallopian tube to fertilize the ovum in the outer part of the tube.
The reproductive events in humans include formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of sperms into the female.
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Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
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Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
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Odor Detection Threshold:
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Characteristics of Smell:
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Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
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Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Human reproduction - A detailed study ( medical information)
1. HUMAN REPRODUCTION –
MY DETAILED STUDY(MEDICAL INFORMATION)
PRESENTED BY
MARTIN SHAJI
PHARM D
2.
3. HUMAN REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is the production of
young ones by an organism.
• Humans are sexually reproducing and
viviparous.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
6. 1. PAIRED TESTES
• Primary sex organs that produce
sperms & testosterone.
• Testes are formed within abdomen.
• Soon after the birth or at the 8th
month of pregnancy, they descent
into the scrotal sac (scrotum)
through inguinal canal.
• The low temperature (2-2.50 C less
than the body temperature) of
scrotum helps for proper functioning
of testes and for spermatogenesis.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
7. • Each testis is oval in shape.
• Length 4-5 cm, width: 2-3 cm.
• Each testis has about 250 testicular
lobules.
• Each lobule contains 1-3 coiled
seminiferous tubules.
• Seminiferous tubule is lined internally
with spermatogenic cells
(spermatogonia or male germ cells) &
Sertoli cells (supporting cells).
• Sertoli cells give shape and
nourishment to developing
spermatogonia.
1. PAIRED TESTES
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
8. 1. PAIRED TESTES
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• The regions outside the
seminiferous tubules
(interstitial spaces) contain
Small blood vessels.
Interstitial cells or Leydig
cells.
Immunologically competent
cells.
• Leydig cells secrete testicular
hormones (androgens).
9. 2. ACCESSORY DUCTS
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMAccessoryducts(Duct
system)
Rete testis
(irregular cavities)
Vasa efferentia
(series of fine tubules)
Epididymis
(stores sperms temporarily)
Vas deferens
Vas deferens joins witha duct of seminal vesicle to form common-ejaculatory duct.
10. 2. ACCESSORY DUCTS
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Urethral meatus
Urethra
Conduction of sperms through Accessoryducts
Seminiferous tubules
Rete testis
Vasa efferentia
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Common ejaculatoryduct
The urethra receives the ducts of prostate and Cowper’s
glands and passes through the penis.
11. 3. ACCESSORY GLANDS
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• They include
A pair of seminal vesicles.
A prostate gland.
A pair of Cowper’s(bulbo-urethral)
glands.
• Their collective secretion is called
seminal plasma. It is rich in fructose, Ca
and enzymes.
Seminal plasma + Sperms → Semen
12. 3. ACCESSORY GLANDS
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Functions of seminal plasma:
Helps for transporting sperms.
Supplies nutrients to sperms.
Provides alkalinity to counteract acidity of
uterus.
Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the
penis.
Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens,
seminal vesicle & prostate help for
maturation and motility of sperms.
13. 4. PENIS (EXTERNAL GENITALIA)
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• It is a copulatory organ.
• It is made up of special erectile
spongy tissues.
• When spongy tissue is filled
with blood, the penis erects. It
facilitates insemination.
• The cone-shaped tip of the penis
is called glans penis. It is covered
by prepuce (foreskin).
21. • Primary sex organs which produce
ova (female gamete) & steroid
ovarian hormones (estrogen &
progesterone).
• Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length.
• They are located on both side of the
lower abdomen and connected to
the pelvic wall and uterus by
ligaments.
1. PAIRED OVARIES
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Ligaments
Ovary
22. • Each ovary is covered by a thin
epithelium which encloses the
ovarian stroma.
• The stroma has outer cortex and
inner medulla.
• Ovary contains groups of cells
(Ovarian or Graafian follicles).
• Each follicle carries a centrally
placed ovum.
1. PAIRED OVARIESFEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
24. A. Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)
• Each oviduct is 10-12 cm long.
• It has 3 parts: Infundibulum, Ampulla &
Isthmus.
Infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening
with many finger-like fimbriae. It helps
to collect the ovum.
Ampulla: Wider part.
Isthmus: Narrow part. It joins the
uterus.
• The ciliated epithelium lined the lumen of
oviduct drives the ovum towards the
uterus.
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
25. B. Uterus (womb)
• It is inverted pear shaped.
• It is supported by ligaments attached to
the pelvic wall.
• Uterus has 3 parts: Upper fundus, middle
body and terminal cervix.
• Cervix opens to vagina.
• The uterine wall has 3 layers:
Perimetrium: External thin membrane.
Myometrium: Middle thick layer of
smooth muscle.
Endometrium: Inner glandular & vascular.
2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
26. 2. ACCESSORY DUCTS (DUCT SYSTEM)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
C. Vagina
• It opens to exterior between urethra and anus.
• The lumen of vagina is lined by a glycogen-rich
mucous membrane consisting of sensitive
papillae and Bartholin’s glands.
• The secretions of Bartholin’s glands lubricate
penis during sexual act.
27. 3. EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA/PUDENDUM)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• Consist of Mons pubis, vestibule,
hymen
& clitoris.
A. Mons pubis
• A cushion of fatty tissue covered by
pubic hair.
B. Vestibule
• A median channel. It includes
Labia majora: Large, fleshy, fatty and
hairy outer folds. Surrounds vaginal
opening.
Labia minora: Small, thin and hairless
inner folds.
28. C. Hymen (Maiden head)
• A membrane which partially cover the
vaginal opening. It is often torn during the
first coitus.
• It may also be broken by a sudden fall or
3. EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA/PUDENDUM)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Hymen may also be broken by a sudden
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D. Clitoris
• A highly sensitive organ lying just in front
of the urethral opening.
29. • A pair of mammary glands contains
glandular tissue & fat.
• Glandular tissue of each breast has
15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells (mammary alveoli).
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk. It
is stored in the cavities (lumen) of
alveoli.
MAMMARY GLANDS (BREASTS)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
30. MAMMARY GLANDS (BREASTS)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Mammary
alveoli
Mammary
tubule
Mammary
duct
Mammary
ampulla
Lactiferous
duct
• The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
• The tubules of each lobe join to form a
mammary duct.
• Several mammary ducts join to form a wider
mammary ampulla which is connected to
lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked
out.
Sequence of milk conduction
38. GAMETOGENESIS
• It is the formation of gametes in the
gonads.
• It includes:
• Spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis
GAMETOGENESIS
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
39. It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in
seminiferous tubules of testis.
1. SPERMATOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
STAGES OF
SPERMATOGENESIS
Formation of
spermatids
a.Spermatogonia (Sperm
mother cells) produce
spermatids.
Spermiogenesis
Spermatids transform
into sperm
41. 1. SPERMATOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
• A primary spermatocyte → 2 secondary
spermatocytes (n).
• A sec. spermatocyte → 2 spermatids (n).
Thus
A primary spermatocyte →
4 spermatids/4 sperms
After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become
embedded in the Sertoli cells. Then they are
released from seminiferous tubules. It is
called spermiation.
42. GAMETOGENESIS 1. SPERMATOGENESIS
Hypothalamus
↓
Acts on Pituitary
↓
Secretion of 2 gonadotropins
Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)
↓
Acts on Sertoli cells
↓
Stimulates secretion
of factors for
spermiogenesis
Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
↓
Acts on Leydig cells
↓
Secretion of Androgen
↓
Stimulates
Spermatogenesis
43. A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.
Sperm is enveloped by a plasma membrane.
Sperm consists of
Head
Middle piece
Tail
1. SPERMATOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
44. Head: Oval shaped. Formed of nucleus & acrosome.
Acrosome is formed from Golgi complex. It contains
lytic enzymes. Behind the head is a neck.
Middle piece: Composed of axial filament
surrounded by mitochondria & cytoplasm.
Mitochondria produce energy for the sperm motility.
Tail: Consists of a central axial filament. The sperm
moves in fluid medium and female genital tract by the
undulating movement of the tail.
1. SPERMATOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
45. The human male ejaculates about 200-300
million sperms during a coitus.
For normal fertility at least 60% sperms
must have normal shape and size. 40% of
them must show vigorous motility.
1. SPERMATOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
46. • It is the formation and maturation of
ovum.
• It takes place in Graafian follicles.
• Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic
stage when millions of egg mother
cells (oogonia) are formed within
each ovary.
• No more oogonia are formed and
added after birth.
• Oogonia multiply to form primary
oocytes. They enter into prophase-I of
the meiosis and get temporarily
arrested at that stage.
2. OOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
47. • Each primary oocyte gets surrounded
by a layer of granulosa cells to form
primary follicle.
• A large number of primary follicles
degenerate during the phase from
birth to puberty. Therefore at puberty
only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles
are left in each ovary.
2. OOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
48. Fluid filled cavity
(antrum) develops.
Theca layer forms
inner theca interna &
outer theca externa.
More layers of
granulosa cells and a
new theca surrounding
a primary oocyte.
GAMETOGENESIS 2. OOGENESIS
Primary
follicle
Secondary
follicle
Tertiary
follicle
Graafian
follicle
Development of ovarian follicle
Fully matured follicle
Granulosa cells
Primary oocyte
A layer of granulosa
cells surrounding a
primary oocyte.
49. • The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows
in size and undergoes first unequal meiotic division
to form a large haploid secondary oocyte and a
tiny first polar body. The secondary oocyte retains
the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
• It is unknown that whether the first polar body
divides further or degenerates.
• The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature
follicle (Graafian follicle).
• Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane (zona
pellucida).
• Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the
secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary. This is
called ovulation.
2. OOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
50. 2. OOGENESISGAMETOGENESIS
Oogonia (2n) (Diploid, 46
chromosomes)
Mitosis (embryonic stage)
Primary oocyte (2n)
↓ Grow in size
Primary oocyte (2n)
Meiosis I ↓ (prior to ovulation)
Secondary oocytes (n)
& first polar body (n)
Meiosis II ↓ (During
fertilization)
Ootid (ovum-n) & second
polar body (n)
Ovum
51. • Spherical and non-motile.
• Size: About 0.2 mm in diameter.
• Ovum has 3 membranes:
Plasma membrane (Oolemma):
Innermost layer.
Zona pellucida: Outer to the plasma
membrane.
Corona radiata: Outer layer formed
of follicle cells.
Structure of ovum (egg)GAMETOGENESIS
52. • Occurs in testis Occurs in ovary
• Limited growth phase Elaborated growth phase
• Each primary spermatocyte
gives 4 sperms
Each primary oocyte gives only
one ovum.
• No polar body formation Polar bodies are formed.
• Begins at puberty and
extends up to senility
Begins at embryonic stage but
suspends up to the puberty. It
ceases around the age of 50.
Spermatogenesis v/s OogenesisGAMETOGENESIS
56. Number of spermatids formed from each primary spermatocyte is
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
57. Head of the sperm is formed of
A. Nucleus and mitochondria
B. Mitochondria and acrosome
C. Nucleus and acrosome
D. Acrosome and centriole
58. Number of primary follicles left in each ovary at puberty is about
A. 6 lakh to 8 lakh
B. 60,000 to 80,000
C. 6000 to 8000
D. 600 to 800 million
59. During oogenesis the primary oocyte divides into
A. Haploid secondary oocyte and polar body
B. Diploid secondary oocyte and polar body
C. 2 haploid secondary oocytes
D. 2 diploid secondary oocytes
60. The layer of ovum formed of follicle cells is
A. Oolemma
B. Vitelline membrane
C. Corona radiata
D. Zona pellucida
61.
62. • It is the cyclic events starting from
one menstruation till the next that
take place during reproductive
period (puberty to menopause) of
a woman’s life.
• Its duration is 28 or 29 days.
• Menstrual cycle is also seen in
other primates.
Ovarian cycle:
Changes in ovary
Uterine cycle:
Changes in uterus,
oviduct and vagina
Menstr
ual
cycle
MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)
63. Phases of
Menstrual
Cycle
Menstrual phase:
1-5th day
Follicular (Proliferative) phase:
5-13th day
Ovulatory phase:
14th day
Secretory (Luteal) phase:
15-28th day
MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)
64. MENSTRUAL CYCLE I. Menstrual phase
• The cycle starts with menstrual
flow (bleeding).
• It lasts for 3-5 days.
• It is due to breakdown of endometrial
lining and blood vessels of the uterus
that comes out through vagina.
• Menstruation occurs if the released
ovum is not fertilized.
• Lack of menstruation indicates
pregnancy. It may also be caused
due to stress, poor health etc.
Ruptured
Endometrium
Bleeding
1-5th
day
65. • It starts from 5th day after menstruation
and completed within 8-12 days.
• In this phase, action of gonadotropins
(FSH &LH) from pituitary occurs.
• FSH stimulates
Development of primary follicles
into Graafian follicles.
Secretion of oestrogens by
Graafian follicles.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Follicular (proliferative) phase
New
Endometrium
5-13th
day
66. Oestrogens stimulate
Proliferation of ruptured uterine
endometrium and mucus lining of
oviduct & vagina.
Development of secondary sexual
characters.
Suppression of FSH secretion.
Secretion of LH (Luteinizing
hormone).
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Follicular (proliferative) phase
New
Endometrium
5-13th
day
67. • LH & FSH attain a peak level in the
middle of cycle.
• Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge)
induces rupture of Graafian follicle
and thereby ovulation (on 14th day).
MENSTRUAL CYCLE III. Ovulatory phase
14th
day
68. • After ovulation, Graafian follicle is
transformed into a yellow endocrine
mass called Corpus luteum. It secretes
progesterone.
• By the action of progesterone,
Endometrium attains maximum
vascularity, thickness and
softness. Thus the uterus gets
ready for implantation.
FSH secretion is inhibited to
prevent development of a second
ovarian follicle.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase
Thick
Endometrium
15-28th
day
69. • During pregnancy all events of
menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation.
• If fertilization does not occur, corpus
luteum degenerates. It causes
disintegration of endometrium. It
leads to next menstruation and new
cycle.
• Menarche: The first menstruation
during puberty.
• Menopause: Stopping of menstrual
cycle (at about 50 yrs of age).
MENSTRUAL CYCLE IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase
Thick
Endometrium
15-28th
day
70. MENSTRUAL CYCLE Overall changes
Change in Pituitary hormone
(FSH & LH) levels
Changes in Ovary (Ovarian events)
Change in Ovarian hormone
(Estrogen & Progesterone) levels
Changes in uterus (Uterine events)
Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal phase Nextcycle
77. During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It iscalled
insemination.
Sperms Vagina
Cervical
canal
Uterus Isthmus
Ovum
(fromovary)
Fimbriae Infundibulum Ampulla
Ampullary-
isthmic Junction
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
bankofbiology.com
78. • Fertilization happens only if ovum & sperms
are transported simultaneously. So all
copulations do not lead to fertilization &
pregnancy.
• A sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida.
It induces changes in the membrane that block
the entry of additional sperms.
• The secretions of the acrosome help sperm to
enter into the egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida
and plasma membrane. This causes second
meiotic division of the secondary oocyte to
form an ovum (ootid) and second polar body.
• The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse
together to form a diploid zygote.
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
79. • The mitotic division (cleavage) starts
as the zygote moves through the
isthmus towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
• The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is
called a morula.
• Morula continues to divide and
transforms into blastocyst.
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
80. • The blastomeres in the blastocyst are
arranged into an outer layer
(trophoblast) and an inner group of
cells (inner cell mass) attached to
trophoblast.
• The trophoblast layer then gets
attached to endometrium.
• The inner cell mass gets
differentiated to 3 germ layers (outer
ectoderm, middle mesoderm & inner
endoderm). This 3-layered structure
(gastrula) forms the embryo.
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
81. After attachment,
uterine cells divide
rapidly and cover
the blastocyst.
As a result, the
blastocyst becomes
embedded in the
endometrium. This
is called
implantation.
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION
87. • The chorionic villi & uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other to form placenta.
• Placenta is a structural and functional unit b/w embryo (foetus) and maternal body.
• Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It transports substances to and
from the embryo.
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
After implantation,
finger-like projections
(chorionic villi)
appear on the
trophoblast which is
surrounded by the
uterine tissue and
maternal blood.
88. PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Functions of placenta
1. Acts as barrier between the foetus & mother.
2. Supply O2, nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
3. Remove CO2 & excretory wastes fromfoetus.
4. Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes Human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), oestrogens,
progesterone & relaxin.
Relaxin is also secreted
by ovary.
89. • During pregnancy, levels
of estrogens,
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PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
90. Changes in embryo during pregnancy
• After one month: Heart is formed.
• End of second month: Limbs and digits
are developed.
• End of 12 weeks (first trimester): The
major organs (limbs, external genital
organs etc) are well developed.
• During 5th month: First movement of
foetus and appearance of hair on the
head.
• End of 24 weeks (second trimester):
Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids
separate and eyelashes are formed.
• End of 9 months: Ready for delivery.
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
92. Parturition (labour)
• Process of giving birth to young ones.
• It is induced by neuroendocrine mechanism.
• The signals from the foetus and placenta
induce mild uterine contractions (fetal
ejection reflex). This causes the release of
oxytocin from maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle
contractions which in turn stimulate further
secretion of oxytocin. This process is
continued leading to expulsion of the baby
out of the uterus through the birth canal.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
93. • After parturition, the umbilical cord is
cut off.
• The placenta & remnants of umbilical
cord are expelled from the maternal
body after parturition. It is called “after
birth”.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
Cutting of Umbilical cord
94. • The mammary glands produce milk
towards the end of pregnancy by the
process called lactation.
• The yellowish milk produced during
the initial few days of lactation is
called colostrum. It contains several
antibodies essential to develop
resistance for the new born babies.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION
95.
96. Placenta
A. Is physiological connection between mother
and foetus.
B. Acts as endocrine gland.
C. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes of foetus.
D. All the above.