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Human performance inti
- 3. Introduction • It is important for a pilot to be aware of the mental and physical standards required for the type of flying done. This chapter provides information on medical certification and on a variety of aeromedical factors related to flight activities.
- 4. Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot Performance • A number of health factors and physiological effects can be linked to flying. Some are minor, while others are important enough to require special attention to ensure safety of flight. In some cases, physiological factors can lead to inflight emergencies. Some important medical factors that a pilot should be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration, and heat stroke. Other subjects include the effects of alcohol and drugs, anxiety, and excess nitrogen in the blood after scuba diving.
- 7. The Composition of Atmosphere Although pressure changes with altitude, this percentage relationship remains constant Oxygen 21% Nitrogen 78% Other 1%
- 8. Physiological Zones of the Atmosphere The Physiologically Deficient Zone 10 000 - 50,000ft: The Space Equivalent Zone 50,000 ft +: The Physiological Zone 0 - 10,000ft:
- 9. Standard Pressure and Temperature Values at 40 Degrees Latitude for Specific Altitudes
- 10. Machine Media Man High Altitude Hypoxia 3D Maneuver Take off - landing Spatial Disorientation Human Performance <<< Unsafe action Defense SuccessGoal Defense Fail Accident Hypoxia – Spatial disorientation and Aircraft accident Incident
- 11. Hypoxia a lack of oxygen to the tissues sufficient to cause impairment of function
- 12. Types of Hypoxia Trachea & Bronchi Alveoli Tissues Atmosphere Blood HYPOXIC
- 13. Hypoxic Hypoxia • Altitude • Medical Causes: – Hypoventilation – Lung disease – Drowning O2 CO2
- 14. Hypaemic Hypoxia • Carbon monoxide • Medical causes – Anaemia – Haemorrhage – Hb abnormalities O2
- 15. • 10,000 - 15,000 feet Few signs/symptoms Performance impairment Headache Poor work capacity Symptoms & Signs
- 16. • 15,000 - 20,000 feet - Loss of judgement and self criticism - Poor neuromuscular control - Emotional changes - Slow thought processes - Symptoms of hypocapnia - Visual symptoms Symptoms & Signs
- 17. Symptoms & Signs • > 20,000 feet - All of the above plus… - Mental performance rapidly declines - Unconsciousness - Myoclonic jerks - Death
- 19. SUBJECTIVE SYMPTOM INDIVIDUAL AND MUST BE RECOGNIZED a. FEELING APPREHANSION c. HEADACHE & DIZZINESS d. FATIQUE e. NAUSEA a. AIR HUNGER/OXYGEN WANT f. HOT & COLD FLASHES g. BLURRED VISION & TUNNEL VISION h. TINGLING & NUMBNESS i. EUPHORIA & BELLIGERANCE j. HIPERVENTILATION a. INCREASED DEPTH OF RESPIRATION b. CYANOSIS c. MENTAL CONFUSION d. POOR JUDGMENT e. LOST OF MUSCLE COORDINATION f. UNCONSCIOUSNESS OBJECTIVE SIGN Acc Helios / Slow Decomp
- 23. Hyperventilation
- 24. Preliminary principles of hyperventilation: Normal respiratory rate is between 12 and 20 cycles per minute (average is 16). You will recall that control of respiration is mediated reflexly through the chemoreceptors in the aorta and the carotid artery by arterial oxygen deficiency in conditions of hypoxia In normal individuals the amount of CO2 produced by the tissues and the amount of CO2 eliminated from the lungs are in perfect balance. This balance is maintained mostly by the blood buffers, which resist any tendency to alter blood pH. It becomes obvious that excessive elimination of CO2 can cause a much-too-rapid fall in H2CO3. The result is an elevation in blood pH
- 25. Symptoms • Light-headed • Dizzy • World fading away, unreality • Anxiety • Tunnelling of vision • Muscle spasms • Decreasing consciousness • Loss of consciousness • Recovery is usual
- 26. • Drugs • Alcohol • Smoking • Other Illnesses • Physical fitness • Rate of ascent • Exercise at altitude • Stress and workload • Cold • Fatigue Other factors affecting hypoxia tolerance Hyperventilation Symptoms • Light-headed • Dizzy • World fading away, unreality • Anxiety • Pins and needles - fingers, toes, lips • Tunnelling of vision • Muscle spasms • Decreasing consciousness • Loss of consciousness • Recovery is usual Corrective actions • Assume HYPOXIA is causing the symptoms • Don oxygen mask immediately • Select 100 % oxygen • Select emergency pressure • Check connections-push only • Control rate and depth of breathing
- 28. • Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS) Decompression sickness (DCS) describes a condition characterized by a variety of symptoms resulting from exposure to low barometric pressures that cause inert gases (mainly nitrogen), normally dissolved in body fluids and tissues, to come out of physical solution and form bubbles. Nitrogen is an inert gas normally stored through out the human body (tissues and fluids) in physical solution. When the body is exposed to decreased barometric pressures (as in flying an unpressurized aircraft to altitude, or during a rapid decompression), the nitrogen dissolved in the body comes out of solution. If the nitrogen is forced to leave the solution too rapidly, bubbles form in different areas of the body, causing a variety of signs and symptoms. The most common symptom is joint pain, which is known as “the bends.”
- 31. Signs and symptoms of altitude decompression sickness.
- 32. Hypobaric Chamber Hypoxia / Hyperventilation Trapped Gas Problem Evolved Gas Problem MAXIMUM ALT FL.650
- 33. HYPERVENTILATION The Physiology of Pressure Change • Trapped Gas Disorders
- 34. Gas Expansion at Altitude 4 x 2 x 1 x 10 x 80k 34k 18k 0 53k
- 36. Otic Barotrauma 1. Normal right tympanic membrane 2. Tympanic membrane invaginated, with min congestion, during descent 3. Invagination of tymp memb, with congestion along the handle of malleus 4. Attic congestion resulting from a relatively mild otitic barotrauma
- 37. 5. Scattered intersttial haemorr in tymp membr these are generally residual in nature 6. Unresolved otitic barotrauma. The bubbles indicate attempts to ventilate the ear via the Eustachian tube 7. Marked congestion, with fresh haemorrage into the middle ear 8. Rupture of the anterior portion of the tymp membrane
- 39. Valsalva Manoeuvre (VM) • Forced expiration with closed nose/mouth • Forces air up Eustachian tube and overpressurises the middle ear • Other techniques - swallowing, chewing, jaw movement • NB: If pressure differential exceeds 90- 120 mmHg, VM ineffective - so clear ears frequently
- 40. AVOID GAS- FORMING FOODS
- 41. AEROPHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT GFET HYPOXIA TRAINING SPATIAL DISORIENTATION TRAINING NIGHT VISION TRAINING NIGHT VISION GOGGLE TRAINING HUET EJECTION SEATTRAINING HUMAN CENTRIFUGE Physiological Effects of Rapid Decompression • Pressure changes – ears, sinuses, gut • Hypoxia • DCI • Cold • Noise • Air blast
- 43. Factors Affecting the Decompression Rate Volume of the Pressurized Cabin. The larger the cabin, the slower the decompression, with other factors remaining the same Size of the Opening. The larger the opening or defect in the cabin, the faster the decompression. Relative Pressure Ratio. The time of decompression is also dependent on the ratio of the cabin pressure before the decompression to the cabin pressure after decompression.
- 44. Mechanical Expansion of Gases After Rapid/Slow Gastrointestinal Tract During Rapid Decompression. One of the potential dangers during a rapid decompression is the expansion of gases within body cavities. The Lungs During Rapid Decompression. Because of the relatively large volume of air normally contained in the lungs Decompression Sickness. Because of the rapid ascent to relatively high altitudes, the risk of decompression sickness is increased. Hypoxia. Physical Indications of a Rapid Decompression. Explosive Noise, Flying Debris, Fogging, Temperature, Pressure
- 46. A LIST OF HUMAN FACTORS
- 47. HFACS ORGANIZATIONAL Influences Unsafe SUPERVISION PRECONDITION for Unsafe Act UNSAFE ACTION Failed or Absent Defenses HAZARDS MISHAP LATENT FAILURE/ CONDITIONS VS SAFETY CULTURE LATENT FAILURE/ CONDITIONS VS SAFETY CULTURE LATENT FAILURE/ CONDITIONS 80% RELATED TO AEROSPACE MED ACTIVE FAILURE The SWISS CHEESE MODEL Adapted from REASON 1990 DOD HFACS 2003 “Naval Flight Surgeon’s Pocket Reference to Aircraft Mishap investigation (AEROMEDICAL DIVISION, NAVAL SAFETY CENTER) DOD -> BOARD -> TASK FORCE -> WORKING GROUP ANALYSIS 300 ACCIDENT HUMAN FACTOR WAS DOMINANT AS 80%-90% (50% OPERATORS & 40% OTHERS) SAFETY PROGRAM “FUTURE” SAFETY INVESTIGATION “PAST” 600 INCIDENTS 30 ACCIDENTS 10 1 SERIOUS ACCIDENTS 1:600 RULE ICAO DOC 9859 FATAL AEROMEDICAL HF ANALYSIS VS INDIVIDUAL SAFETY CULTURE ILLUSTRATION :
- 48. Organizational Influences Unsafe supervision Precondition for Unsafe Act Failed or Absent Defenses HAZARDS MISHAP Latent Failures/ Conditions Latent Failures/ Conditions Latent Failures/ Conditions Active Failures Unsafe act PRECONDITION ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNICAL ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCO BEHAVIORAL FACTOR ADVERS PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE PHYSICAL MENTAL LIMITATION PERCEPTUAL (SDO)
- 49. PRECONDITION ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR CONDITION OF INDIVIDUAL PERSONAL FACTOR PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNICAL ENVIRONMENTAL COGNITIF FACTOR PSYCO BEHAVIORAL FACTOR ADVERSE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE PHYSICAL MENTAL LIMITATION PERCEPTUAL (SDO) COORDINATION/ COMMUNICATION/ PLANNING FACTOR SELF IMPOSE STRESS - EFFECT G FORCE - PRECRIBED DRUG - OPERATIONAL INJURY - SUDDEN INCAPACITATION - PRE EXISTING PHYSICAL ILLNESS - FATIQUE PHYSIOLOGICAL - CIRCADIAN RHYTM DESYNCHRONY - MOTION SICKNESS - TRAPPED GAS DISORDER - EVOLVED GAS DISORDER - HYPOXIA - HYPERVENTILATION - VISUAL ADAPTATION - DEHYDRATION - ILLUSION KINESTHETIC - ILLUSION VESTIBULAR - ILLUSION VISUAL - EXPECTANCY - AUDITORY CUES - SDO TYPE 1 - SDO TYPE 2 - SDO TYPE 3 - MISPERCEPTION OF OPERATIONAL - MISINTERPRETED / MISREAD INSTRUMENT
- 50. FATIQUE BASIC CAUSE OF FATIGUE a. SLEEP LOSS b. WORK INDUCED c. CIRCADIAN RHYTHM DISRUPTION FACTORS TO BE CONSIDRED IN ESTIMATION OF FATIQUE POTENSTIALS a. LENGTH OF FLIGHT b. LAY OVER FACILITIES c. RELIABILITY OF RADIO AIDS d. UNCOMFORTABLE PERSONAL EQUIPMENT e. WEATHER f. PHYSICAL CONDITION g. HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN ENGINERRING h. TOXIC FACTORS. j. LEADERSHIP AND TEAM SPIRITS. k. PERSONAL FACTORS. l. DIURNAL RHYTHM FACTORS. m. UNFORSEEN EMERGENCIES.
- 51. Fatigue Human performance << Unsafe action Accident Productivities<< Physical Psychology Circadian Correlation Loss Benefits Human Impact every one Sleep Cognitive Psycho motoric Affective Physiology
- 55. ERROR is a FAILURE in HUMAN PERFORMANCE TO ERR IS HUMAN (ICAO Doc 9859) VIOLATION DELIBERATELY,INTENDED, INTENTIONALLY - BASED ON RISK ASSESMENT - ROUTINE / WIDESREAD - EXCEPTIONAL - LACK OF DISCIPLINE SKILL BASED ERROR LAPSE & SLIPS JUDGEMENT & DECISION MAKING ERROR RULED & KNOWLEDGE BASED MISTAKE PERCEPTION – ERROR DUE TO MISPERCEPTION ERROR REWARD&PUNISHMENT NO BLAME & PUNISHMENT EDUCATION & TRAINING REPORT CULTURE INFORM CULTURE LEARNING CULTURE JUST CULTURE SAFETY CULTURE UNSAFE ACT (WHAT; WHY; HOW) NATIONAL CULTURE ORGANIZATION CULTURE LEADER CULTURE INDIVIDUAL CULTURE - INADVERTENT OPERATION - CHECK LIST ERROR - PROCEDURAL ERROR - OVER CONTROL / UNDER CONTROL - BREAK DOWN IN VISUAL SCAN - IN ADEQUATE AGSM - RISK ASSESMENT DURING OPERATION - TASK MISPRIORITAZION - NECESSARY ACTION: RUSH - NECESSARY ACTION: DELAYED - CAUTION/WARNING : IGNORED - DECISION MAKING DURING OPERATION THE ROLE OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE IN BUILDING THE SAFETY CULTURE
- 56. “Basic Orientation Trainer” Spatial Disorientation (during bad weather/dark night)
- 57. SDO-1
- 58. SDO-2
- 59. SPATIAL DISORIENTATION (SDO) INPUT ERROR : When Errorneous Or Inadequae Sensory Information Is Transmitted To The Brain CENTRAL ERROR : When There Is An Errorneous Or Inadequae Perception Of Correct Sensory Information By Brain – Coning Attention, Fascination, Error Expectancy. SPATIAL DISORIENTATION : Somatogravic Illusion, Somatogyral Illusion,occulogravic Illusion, Occulo Gyral Illusion, Corriolis Illusion, G Excess Illusion, Lean, Graveyard Spin, Graveyard Spiral , Black Hole Illusion, Out Brake Phenomen, Giant Hand Phenomen , Visual Illusion, Etc
- 60. SDO AND ILLUSION
- 62. seat′-of-the- pants′ adj. 1. using or based on experience, instinct, or guesswork: a seat-of-the- pants management style. 2. done without the aid of instruments: The pilot made a seat- of-the-pants landing.
- 63. In early aviation, when they would fly into a heavy cloud, they could easily turn upside down. Without being able to see anything, and without newer instruments, the only way to tell if the plane was upside down or right side up was the feeling of the seat pressing against the pilot. You were flying by the seat of your pants.
- 65. ‘seat on the pants’ flying Anyone in an aircraft that is making a coordinated turn, no matter how steep, will have little or no sensation of being tilted in the air unless the horizon is visible.
- 66. SOMATOGRAVIC ILLUSION The somatogravic illusion is a vestibular illusion which is prevalent during high accelerations/ deccelerations when a pilot has no clear visual reference (Wilson, 1995).
- 67. The word Somatogravic is derived from somato meaning ‘of the body’ and gravic meaning ‘pertaining to the gravitational force’ and is a strong pitching sensation (either up or down) when the body is exposed to either high acceleration or decelerations (Kern, 1998 1). This illusion is due to the interaction of unnatural accelerations (such as those experienced in an aircraft) on our Otolith Organs, specifically our utricle (Massey University, 2011 2).
- 69. • Vestibular Illusions A. The Leans A condition called the leans can result when a banked attitude, to the left for example, may be entered too slowly to set in motion the fluid in the “roll” semicircular tubes. An abrupt correction of this attitude sets the fluid in motion, creating the illusion of a banked attitude to the right. The disoriented pilot may make the error of rolling the aircraft into the original left banked attitude, or if level flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived
- 70. • Leans The most common form of spatial disorientation is the leans. This illusion occurs when the pilot fails to sense angular motion. With a slow rate of roll (2 degrees per second or lower), the pilot may not perceive that the aircraft is banked. He may feel that his aircraft is still flying straight and level although the attitude indicator shows that the aircraft is in a bank. Make the instruments read right ! Rely on the flight instruments – never on your perception. Ignore your internal instruments.
- 71. THE LEAN
- 72. DANGER AND RISK • If a pilot does not notice the disorientation and continues to lean, the plane may over bank in the wrong direction and cause rolling. This is the most common spatial disorientation for pilot.
- 73. B. Coriolis Illusion The coriolis illusion occurs when a pilot has been in a turn long enough for the fluid in the ear canal to move at the same speed as the canal. A movement of the head in a different plane, such as looking at something in a different part of the flight deck, may set the fluid moving and create the illusion of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis. This action causes the pilot to think the aircraft is doing a maneuver that it is not. The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to correct the aircraft’s perceived attitude. For this reason, it is important that pilots develop an instrument cross-check or scan that involves minimal head movement. Take care when retrieving charts and other objects in the flight deck—if something is dropped, retrieve it with minimal head movement and be alert for the coriolis illusion.
- 75. C. Graveyard Spiral and Spiral • As in other illusions, a pilot in a prolonged coordinated, constant-rate turn, will have the illusion of not turning. During the recovery to level flight, the pilot will experience the sensation of turning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to its original turn. Because an aircraft tends to lose altitude in turns unless the pilot compensates for the loss in lift, the pilot may notice a loss of altitude. The absence of any sensation of turning creates the illusion of being in a level descent. The pilot may pull back on the controls in an attempt to climb or stop the descent. This action tightens the spiral and increases the loss of altitude; this illusion is referred to as a graveyard spiral. At some point, this could lead to a loss of aircraft control.
- 77. Graveyard Spin
- 78. 4 2 3 1
- 79. D. Somatogravic Illusion A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff, stimulates the otolith organs in the same way as tilting the head backwards. This action creates the somatogravic illusion of being in a nose-up attitude, especially in situations without good visual references. The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by quick reduction of the throttle(s) can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up or stall attitude. E. Elevator Illusion An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, as can occur in an updraft, can stimulate the otolith organs to create the illusion of being in a climb. This is called elevator illusion. The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually in a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up attitude.
- 80. BELL 47 SOLOY H 4712 KALI JATI 11- 3 – 08: ( TOP TREE - LIKELY VISUAL ILLUSION ?) VISUAL ILLUSION (PRECONDITION FOR UNSAFE) SDO TYPE 1 UNSAFE ACTION MISPERCEPTION ERROR
- 81. • Coping with Spatial Disorientation To prevent illusions and their potentially disastrous consequences, pilots can: 1. Understand the causes of these illusions and remain constantly alert for them. Take the opportunity to experience spatial disorientation illusions in a device such as a Barany chair, a Vertigon, or a Virtual Reality Spatial Disorientation Demonstrator. 2. Always obtain and understand preflight weather briefings. 3. Before flying in marginal visibility (less than 3 miles) or where a visible horizon is not evident, such as flight over open water during the night, obtain training and maintain proficiency in airplane control by reference to instruments. 4. Do not continue flight into adverse weather conditions or into dusk or darkness unless proficient in the use of flight instruments. If intending to fly at night, maintain night-flight currency and proficiency. Include cross- country and local operations at various airfields. 5. Ensure that when outside visual references are used, they are reliable, fixed points on the Earth’s surface. 6. A void sudden head movement, particularly during takeoffs, turns, and approaches to landing. 7. Be physically tuned for flight into reduced visibility. That is, ensure proper rest, adequate diet, and, if flying at night, allow for night adaptation Remember that illness, medication, alcohol, fatigue, sleep loss, and mild hypoxia are likely to increase susceptibility to spatial disorientation. 8. Most importantly, become proficient in the use of flight instruments and rely upon them. Trust the instruments and disregard your sensory perceptions.
- 83. Vision in Flight Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Most of the things perceived while flying are visual or heavily supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is, vision is subject to limitations, such as illusions and blind spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and how they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively and compensate for potential problems. The eye functions much like a camera. Its structure includes an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the front of the eyeball, travels through the lens, and falls on the retina. The retina contains light sensitive cells that convert light energy into electrical impulses that travel through nerves to the brain. The brain interprets the electrical signals to form images. There are two kinds of light-sensitive cells in the eyes: rods and cones. The area where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no rods or cones, leaving a blind spot in the field of vision. Normally, each eye compensates for the other’s blind spot. Provides a dramatic example of the eye’s blind spot. Cover the right eye and hold this page at arm’s length. Focus the left eye on the X on the right side of the windshield and notice what happens to the airplane while slowly bringing the page closer to the eye.
- 84. A. Runway Width Illusion • A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, especially when runway length- to-width relationships are comparable. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than- usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of the pilot leveling out the aircraft high and landing hard, or overshooting the runway.
- 85. B. Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create an illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. Downsloping runways and downsloping approach terrain can have the opposite effect.
- 86. - Runway width illusion - A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach. - A wider-than-usual runway can create an illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher approach. - Runway slope illusion - A downsloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher approach. - An upsloping runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, leading to a lower approach. - Normal approach - Approach due to illusion
- 87. C. Haze Atmospheric haze can create an illusion of being at a greater distance and height from the runway. As a result, the pilot will have a tendency to be low on the approach. Conversely, extremely clear air (clear bright conditions of a high attitude airport) can give the pilot the illusion of being closer than he or she actually is, resulting in a high approach, which may result in an overshoot or go around. The diffusion of light due to water particles on the windshield can adversely affect depth perception. The lights and terrain features normally used to gauge height during landing become less effective for the pilot.
- 88. The human eye. the eye’s blind spot.
- 89. • Refer to Figure in pict. When looking directly at an object, the image is focused mainly on the fovea, where detail is best seen. At night, the ability to see an object in the center of the visual field is reduced as the cones lose much of their sensitivity and the rods become more sensitive. Looking off center can help compensate for this night blind spot. Along with the loss of sharpness (acuity) and color at night, depth perception and judgment of size may be lost. Night blind spot.
- 90. A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. It can be generated by confusing bright stars and city lights. It can also occur while flying toward the shore of an ocean or a large lake. Because of the relative darkness of the water, the lights along the shoreline can be mistaken for stars in the sky. FALSE HORIZON
- 91. The Autokinetic Illusion Gives the impression that a stationary object is moving in front of the airplane’s path. It is caused by staring at a fixed single point of light (ground light or a star) in a totally dark and featureless background. This illusion can cause a misperception that such a light is on a collision course with your aircraft
- 92. • Unknown • Involuntary eye movements Cause
- 93. Figure a, and b. Misperception of the horizontal at night. a. Ground lights appearing to be stars cause the earth and sky to blend and a false horizon to be perceived. b. Blending of overcast sky with unlighted terrain or water causes the horizon to appear lower than is actually the case. ba SKY – GROUND BLENDING
- 94. A Spatial Disorientation Survey of Hellenic Air Force Pilots, Spanyol, April 2002, The top 5 illusions reported : • The leans (47.2%) primarily with F4 • The Coriolis illusion (39%) primarily with F4 • Blending of earth and sky(38,2%) primarily with F4 and A7 • Flight instrument reversal (24.3%) primarily with F4 and • Sloping clouds or terrain (22.8%) primarily with F16 and A7
- 95. Motion sickness, or airsickness, is caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body. A pilot may experience motion sickness during initial flights, but it generally goes away within the first few lessons. Anxiety and stress, which may be experienced at the beginning of flight training, can contribute to motion sickness. Symptoms of motion sickness include general discomfort, nausea, dizziness, paleness, sweating, and vomiting. MOTION SICKNESS
- 96. CO is a colorless and odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines. Attaching itself to the hemoglobin in the blood about 200 times more easily than oxygen, CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells, resulting in hypemic hypoxia. The body requires up to 48 hours to dispose of CO. If severe enough, the CO poisoning can result in death. Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents may provide CO a passageway into the cabin, particularly if the engine exhaust system has a leak or is damaged. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume that CO is present. However, CO may be present in dangerous amounts even if no exhaust odor is detected. Disposable, inexpensive CO detectors are widely available. In the presence of CO, these detectors change color to alert the pilot of the presence of CO. Some effects of CO poisoning are headache, blurred vision, dizziness, drowsiness, and/or loss of muscle power. Any time a pilot smells exhaust odor, or any time that these symptoms are experienced, immediate corrective actions should be taken. These include turning off the heater, opening fresh air vents and windows, and using supplemental oxygen, if available. CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) POISONING
- 97. • Dehydration and Heatstroke Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from the body. Causes of dehydration are hot flight decks and flight lines, wind, humidity, and diuretic drinks—coffee, tea, alcohol, and caffeinated soft drinks. Some common signs of dehydration are headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness, and dizziness. The first noticeable effect of dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes top physical and mental performance difficult, if not impossible. Flying for long periods in hot summer temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility to dehydration because these conditions tend to increase the rate of water loss from the body. Other steps to prevent dehydration include: • Carrying a container in order to measure daily water intake. • Staying ahead—not relying on the thirst sensation as an alarm. If plain water is offensive, add some sport drink flavoring to make it more acceptable. • Limiting daily intake of caffeine and alcohol (both are diuretics and stimulate increased production of urine).
- 98. • Heatstroke is a condition caused by any inability of the body to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but also has been known to be recognized only by complete collapse. • To prevent these symptoms, it is recommended that an ample supply of water be carried and used at frequent intervals on any long flight, whether thirsty or not. The body normally absorbs water at the rate of 1.2 to 1.5 quarts per hour. Individuals should drink one quart per hour for severe heat stress conditions or one pint per hour for moderate stress conditions. If the aircraft has a canopy or roof window, wearing light-colored, porous clothing and a hat will help provide protection from the sun. Keeping the flight deck well ventilated aids in dissipating excess heat.
- 99. • Alcohol Alcohol impairs the efficiency of the human body. Studies have proved that drinking and performance deterioration are closely linked. Pilots must make hundreds of decisions, some of them time-critical, during the course of a flight. The safe outcome of any flight depends on the ability to make the correct decisions and take the appropriate actions during routine occurrences, as well as abnormal situations. The influence of alcohol drastically reduces the chances of completing a flight without incident.
- 100. • Drugs Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescription and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough suppressants have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. [Figure in pict] Others, such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness have side effects that may impair the same critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or antihistamine, can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia.
- 101. Adverse affects of various drugs
- 103. Flow Rate Oxygen Cylinder D Tank (359 Liters @ 2,000 psi) Oxygen Cylinder H Tank (6,910 Liters @ 2,200 psi) 2 LPM 90 minutes 28 hours 4 LPM 45 minutes 14 hours 6 LPM 30 minutes 9 hours 10 LPM 15 minutes 5 hours Oxygen Supply Duration
- 104. Oxygen Dissociation Curves for Human Blood
- 105. Altitude in Feet Stage Breathing Air Breathing 100% O2 Arterial O2 Saturation (%) Indifferent 0 to 10,000 34,000 to 39,000 95 to 90 Compensatory 10,000 to 15,000 39,000 to 42,500 90 to 80 Disturbance 15,000 to 20,000 42,500 to 44,800 80 to 70 Critical 20,000 to 23,000 44,800 to 45,500 70 to 60 STAGES OF HYPOXIA
- 107. AGSM
- 108. SUPPLY DARAH KE OTAK PENERBANG Utk G = 4 pemakaian darah paling lama 4 detik Utk G < 4, pemakaian darah dpt semakin lama dgn semakin kecilnya G. Cadangan dari otak Darah di otak Darah dipompa dari jantung Jarak hidrostatik jantung ke otak pd kondisi 1g 20 cm Makin besar g makin lama waktu yg diperlukan oleh darah utk naik dari jantung ke otak Pada nilai G > 7 waktu yg diperlukan oleh darah utk mencapai otak mendekati tak hingga Makin besar harga G : makin besar berat darah makin lama waktu darah dari jantung mencapai otak seakan-akan jarah hidrostatik jantung ke otak bertambah panjang Cadangan Dipompa dari jantung 1 2 Glevel 11 9 7 5 3 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 darah cadangan di otak Darah dipompa dari jantung Waktu dalam sekon 2 Darah total diotak 1 2+ 1 Daerah sadar dengan darah di otak Daerah tanpa darah di otak pilot tak sadar 1G 3G 5G
- 109. EFEK FISIOLOGIS BEBAN GZ, G INCLUCED LOSS OF CONSCIOUSES (G LOC) 11 9 7 5 3 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 G-LoC Suplay darah cadangan hanya utk 4 sec Suplay darah dari jantung grey out black out Waktu dalam sekon (3) (1) (2) (4) Pull up 1G ke 8G dlm waktu t sec t< 4, darah cadangan 4 < t < 8 GLoC Pull up 1 ke 6G dlm waktu 8 sec t< 4 darah cadangan 6 < t < 7 terjadi grey - out 7 < t < 8 terjadi black- out t > 8 pilot mengalami G LoC Pull up dari 1 G ke 4 G ke 3 G dlm waktu t =20 sec Saat t < 4 s, suplai darah dari cadangan (Pilot sadar) Antara 6<t<13 sec pilot mengalami grey-out karena suplai dari jantung belum sampai ke otak t>13 suplai darah dari jangtung sampai ke otak (pandangan pilot normal kembali) Pull up dari 1G ke 8G ke 1G dlm waktu t < 4 sec Pilot tetap sadar karena otak dpt suplai darah cadangan Glevel
- 110. EFFECT OF MANEUVER ACCELERATION : G-FORCE LINIER : Vt = Vo ± a.t , S= Vo.t ± ½ a.t ² ANGULER a = V ² / R G = a / g PH = h.d.G d = SPECIFIC DENSITY = 1/ 13.6 h = DISTANCE PH = HIDROSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT CENTRIFUGAL
- 111. GENERAL AFFECT MOBILITY : +2G SAGGING SOFT TISSUE OF FACE + 3G DIFFICULT RAISE FROM SITTING - TUNNEL VISION - GRAY OUT - BLACK OUT VISUAL SYMPTOM : UNCONSCIOUSNESS : TOTAL LOSS OF MUSCLE TONE SO THAT THE HEAD & TRUNK SLUMP AT MODERAT LEVEL 5-6 +Gz AT HIGHER ACCELERATION WITHOUT ANY VISUAL SYMPTOM AT VERY ROR AFTER 4-6 SEC
- 112. NEGATIVE G z OPPOSITE TO + Gz - 2,5 Gz : Sense Of Fullness, Oedem Eye Lids, Petechial Haemorrhage In Skin Of Face And Neck - 2,5 Gz to – 3Gz : Feel As If Eye Are Popping Out Of The Eye -4 To – 5 Gz : Longer Than 6 Sec -> Mental Confusion And Unconsciousness CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECT : Hydrostatic Effect Carotid Sinus& Cardiac Output Brady Cardia Cardiac Arrythmia Arteriolar Vasodilatation Cerebral Circulation : No Significant Risk Of Rupture Of Vessel Within Skull PULMONARY EFFECT: Diaphragma Push To Upward Vital Capacity & Funtional Capacity Decrease
- 113. The Bad Things G tolerance is degraded as a result of alcohol, fatigue, and dehydration Lack of physical conditioning and a sedentary lifestyle can also degrade G tolerance and increase the aviator’s susceptibility
- 114. A regular program of conditioning that includes a mix of aerobic exercise coupled with resistance weight training will increase an aviator’s resistance to the effects of Gs. The Good Things