The document discusses strategies for effective classroom instruction. It provides details on 9 instructional strategies shown to improve student learning outcomes, including identifying similarities and differences, summarizing and note-taking, cooperative learning, and generating and testing hypotheses. Guidelines are offered for incorporating these strategies into lesson planning, such as setting clear learning goals and objectives, introducing new knowledge, and monitoring student progress. Recommendations also address teaching students how to compare and classify information, as well as how to create metaphors and analogies.

1. Sajjad Ahmad Awan PhD Research
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How To Make Classroom
Effective
By
Sajjad Ahmad Awan PhD
Research Scholar TE Planning

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Classroom Instruction That Works
Identifying similarities and differences
Summarizing and note taking
Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
Homework and practice
Nonlinguistic representations
Cooperative learning
Setting objectives and providing feedback
Generating and testing hypotheses
Questions, cues and organizers

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Classroom Instruction That Works –
Effect Size
Category Ave. Effect
Size
Percentile
Gain
# of Studies
Identifying similarities and
differences
1.61 45 31
Summarizing and note taking 1.00 34 179
Reinforcing effort and providing
recognition
.80 29 21
Homework and practice .77 28 134
Nonlinguistic representations .75 27 246
Cooperative learning .73 27 122
Setting objectives and providing
feedback
.61 23 408
Generating and testing
hypotheses
.61 23 63
Questions, cues and organizers .59 22 1251

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Using the 9 Instructional Strategies
in Lesson/Unit Planning
Clear Learning Goals
(#7 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback)
Students identify and
record their own goals
(#7 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback)
1.
2.
Beginning of the Unit/Lesson

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During the Unit
Introducing New Knowledge
1. Guide students to recall what they
already know about the topics.
(#9 Cues, Questions, Advance Organizers)
2. Provide students with ways of
thinking about the topic in advance.
(#9 Cues, Questions, Advance Organizers)
3. Compare new knowledge with what is
known.
(#1 Identifying Similarities and Differences)

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During the Unit
Introducing New Knowledge
4. Have students keep notes
(#2 Summarizing and Note-taking)
5. Non-linguistic representations,
share with others
(#5 Non-linguistic Representations)
6. Have students work individually
and in groups.
(#6 Cooperative Learning)

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During the Unit
Practicing, Reviewing and Applying
Knowledge
1. Assign homework that requires practice, review and
application of learning. Give explicit feedback as to
the accuracy of all homework.
(#4 Homework and Practice, #7 Setting Objectives and
Providing Feedback)
2. Engage students in long-term projects that involve
testing and generating hypotheses.
(#8 Generating and Testing Hypotheses)
3. Have students revise the linguistic and nonlinguistic
representations of knowledge as they refine their
understanding. (# 2 Summarizing and Note taking, #5
Nonlinguistic Representations)

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During the Unit
Monitoring Learning Goals
1. Feedback and Self-Assessment
(#7 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback)
2. Students keep track of
achievement and effort expending
toward goals
(#3 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition
#7 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback)
3. Celebrate legitimate progress
toward learning goals
(#3 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition)

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End of the unit…
Helping students determine how well they
have achieved their goals
(#3 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition, #7 Setting
Objectives and Providing Feedback)
 Provide students with clear
assessments of their progress
on each goal.
 Have student assess themselves
and compare with the teacher’s
assessment
 Ask them to articulate what
they have learned.

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9 Strategies = Results in all subjects
 Specific Instructional Strategies can
be matched to specific types of
knowledge.
 Different types of learning
sometimes necessitate different
types of instruction.

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Before you start…
 Be clear about the
learning that you
want your students
achieve.
 Understand which
strategy works best
to accomplish your
learning target.

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Generalizations that enhance student’s
understanding of what is being taught and
their ability to use that knowledge.
 Teacher directed – presenting students
with guidance
 Asking students to independently engage
in the activity
 Use non-linguistic representation
 Student generate own explanations and
create non-linguistic representation
 Periodically review the accuracy of their
explanations and representations

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Categories of Subject Matter Knowledge
 Declarative Knowledge
(Information and Ideas)
 Vocabulary
 Details
 Organizing Ideas
 Procedural Knowledge
(Skills and Processes)
 Skills and Tactics
 Processes

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Comparing
The process of identifying and
articulating similarities and differences
among items.
Classifying
The process of grouping things into
definable categories on the basis of their
attributes.
Creating
Metaphors
The process of identifying and
articulating the underlying theme or
general pattern in information.
Creating
Analogies
The process of identifying relationships
between pairs of concepts (e.g.,
relationships between relationships).
4 Strategies for Similarities and Differences

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Identifying Similarities and Differences:
Comparing Task, Round 1
 Venn Diagram
 Apples and
Oranges

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Characteristic 1
_____________________
Characteristic 2
_____________________
Easy to see that items
are very different for this
characteristic…
…and very similar for
this characteristic.

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What are the steps in the comparison process?
COMPARING 1. Select the items you want to
compare.
2. Select the characteristics of the
items on which you want to base
your comparison.
3. Explain how the items are similar
and different with respect to the
characteristics you selected.
To

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Our Goals for Student Learning…
 Help prepare for further learning
 Identify critical relationships
 Gain understanding, clear-up
confusion, make new connections
 Change in knowledge structure as a result
of instruction

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One key to a rigorous comparison is to identify items and characteristics
that are meaningful and interesting. To do this, students need
extensive modeling and feedback. If the items and characteristics are
not meaningful, students will not make new distinctions or come to new
conclusions about the targeted knowledge.
TIP
Make sure that students understand that the purpose of doing the
comparison is to extend and refine their understanding of the
knowledge they are learning. Asking students to select different
characteristics will help them move beyond the obvious.
TIP
Tips Related to the Comparison Process

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Identifying Similarities and Differences:
Comparing Task, Round 2
 In Jigsaw Groups:
 Venn Diagram/Comparison Matrix
 Apples and Oranges
 Learning Goal: How does temperature
and length of growing season effect the
nutritional value of fruit?
 How was Round 1 different than Round 2?

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ELA and Math GLCE
…comparing or contrasting?
 Comparing is the
process of identifying
similarities and
differences between
or among things or
ideas.
 Comparing refers to
identifying
similarities
 Contrasting refers to
identifying
differences.

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ELA and Math GLCE Task
 Find a GLCE at your
grade level and content
area that would be
suitable to compare,
contrast or both.
 Would you use Venn
Diagram/Comparison
Matrix/other?
 What steps would you
have to take in order for
students to use
comparison with the
GLCE independently?
o Think-Pair-Share

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CLASSIFYING 1. Identify the items you want to classify.
2. Select what seems to be an important
item, describe its key attributes, and identify
other items that have the same attributes.
3. Create a category by specifying the
attribute(s) that the items must have for
membership in this category.
4. Select another item, describe its key
attributes, and identify other items that have
the same attributes.
Birds Fish Dogs
What are the steps in the classifying process?

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5. Create the second category by specifying
the attribute(s) that the items must have
for membership in the category.
6. Repeat the previous two steps until all
items are classified and the specific
attributes have been identified for
membership in each category.
7. If necessary, combine categories or split
them into smaller categories and specify
attribute(s) that determine membership in
the category.
CLASSIFYING
(cont’d)
Birds Fish Dogs

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We have been learning that different animals live in different
environments. Classify the following animals in terms of
whether they live in lakes or oceans, forests, in the soil, or in the
desert.
raccoons moles clams scorpions
squirrels frogs bears lizards
deer fish ants turtles
worms ducks snakes
Now, reclassify these animals using another set of attributes. For
example, you might identify attributes that relate to the animal’s
skin or outer covering (e.g., has fur, scales, has a shell). You may
use a blank classifying graphic or your own chart to do this task.
Content Area: Science
Knowledge: Understands that different animals
live in different environments.

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Classification – a strategy for GLCE
 ELA- Genre characteristics, poetry,
types of fiction
 Math – whole numbers, fractions,
negative numbers, geometrical
figures
 Science – habitat, endangered,
geographical location, adaptation
 Social Studies – human, economic
and capital resources.

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Creating Metaphors
 Identify a general or basic
pattern in a specific topic
and then find another topic
that seems quite different at
the literal level but has the
same general pattern.
Examples…
 Counting is a recipe.
 Vocabulary is a map legend.
 Instructional Strategies are
onions.
Video Clip:
Math
Metaphors

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Steps for Creating Metaphors
1. Identify the important or basic elements
of the information of situation with
which you are working.
2. Write that basic information as a general
pattern by:
• Replacing words for specific things with words for
more general things, and
• Summarizing information whenever possible
3. Find new information or a situation to
which the general pattern applies.

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Metaphor Organizer
Element Literal
Pattern
Abstract
Relationship
Literal
Pattern
Element
Internet Coffee
shop

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Examples of Metaphors in Content
Areas
 Social Studies-America is freedom
and promise
 Math-The graph of the sine function
is a roller coaster
 ELA-Writing is a process
 Science-The cell is a factory

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Recommendations for Classroom
Practice
 Giving students a model for the
process.
 Using familiar content to teach
students the steps in creating
metaphors
 Giving students graphic organizers,
and
 Giving students guidance as needed

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Analogies … A question
What is the purpose of
asking students to
create analogies?

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The purpose of analogies in the
classroom
 Help make connections between things
that are very different
 Pattern is A:B::C:D
 A is to B as C is to D
 happy:sad::big:small
 happy and big are opposites of sad and small
Analogy problems are common in testing
situations – PSAT, SAT, ACT.

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Using Analogies in the Classroom
 Help explain an unfamiliar concept
by making a comparison to
something that we understand.
Question… What is this analogy?
 One:trillion::one square inch: the
area of the city of Chicago
 Pushes students to think about how
items and concepts are related:
how do two things interact, and
how is the relationship similar to
the relationship between the second
pair.

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Analogies Organizer – Great
Depression
Stock Market
Crash of 1929
U.S. Economy
A
Is to
B
Something attacks a
system and weakens its
ability to prevent
serious affliction.AS
C D

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Task: Strategic questioning
 What is the goal or purpose of
engaging students in
summarizing activities?
 To what extent do you think the
act of summarizing varies from
grade level to grade level?
From content area to content
area? Why do you think this?
 Think-Share-Pair

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Critical questions for
Watching Video Clip
 For the student:
 How do I decide what is
important?
 What should I keep?
 What should I substitute?
 What should I delete?
 For the teacher:
 What strategies do you teach students to help them become
proficient in summarizing?
 To what extent do you think these strategies support them in
identifying what they should keep, substitute, and delete?
 How do you know if engaging in these strategies is really
helping students to deepen their understanding of the content?

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A Model for Summarizing
Steps for Rule-Based
Summarizing
1. Delete trivial material that is
unnecessary to
understanding.
2. Delete redundant material.
3. Substitute super-ordinate
terms for more specific
terms (e.g., use fish for
rainbow trout, salmon, and
halibut).
4. Select a topic sentence or
invent one if it is missing.
Steps in Rule-Based
Summarizing for Younger
Students
1. Take out material that is not
important to your
understanding.
2. Take out words that repeat
information
3. Replace a list of things with
a word that describes the
things in the list (e.g., use
trees for elm, oak, and
maple).
4. Find a topic sentence. If you
cannot find a topic sentence,
make one up.

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Research generalizations on
summarizing
• Students must delete some information,
substitute some information, and keep some
information.
• To effectively delete, substitute, and keep
information, students must analyze the
information at a fairly deep level.
• Being aware of the explicit structure of
information is an aid to summarizing
information. Summary Frames

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The Six Summary Frames
Narrative Frame
Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame
Definition Frame
Argumentation Frame
Problem/Solution Frame
Conversation Frame

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A summary is …
1) A summary:
 Is an essential condensation in your own words.
 Answers the question “what is the author really saying?”
 Is the result of careful “listening” to the author.
 Remains faithful to the author’s emphasis and
interpretation.
 Does not disagree with or critique the author’s opinion.
2) A summary is a comprehensive but brief statement of what has
been stated previously in a longer form.
3) A summary is a wrap-up----a general picture of the
information--- much like TV networks produce at the end of a
year.
4) Summaries provide a quick overview of a subject without
having the reader wade through a lot of facts and details.
Summaries help readers and writers boil information down to
its most basic elements.
5) Encyclopedias, almanacs, and digests provide good examples of
summaries.

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Procedural Knowledge
Summarizing is “procedural
knowledge.” If students are
expected to become
proficient in procedural
knowledge, they need to be
able to “practice.”
Mastering a skill or process requires a
fair amount of focused practice.
Practice sessions initially should be
spaced very closely together. Over
time, the intervals between sessions
can be increased. Students also need
feedback on their efforts.
While practicing, students should adapt and
shape what they have learned.

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A Rubric for Summarizing
4
The student identifies the main pattern running through
the information along with minor patterns.
3
The student identifies the main pattern running through
the information.
2
The student addresses some of the features of the
main pattern running through the information but
excludes some critical aspects.
1
The student does not address the main pattern running
through the information.
0 Not enough information to make a judgment.

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Planning for Summarizing
What specific information will
students need to summarize?
 film or video
 chapter
 lecture
 story
 article
 event
 other_______________
What strategy will I ask students to use?
 Rule-based Summarizing Strategy
 Summary Frames
 Narrative or Story
 TRI
 Definition
 Argumentation
 Problem/Solution
 Conversation
 Group Enhanced Summary Strategy
 Other ___________
What knowledge will students be
learning?
Do I need to set aside time to teach
them the strategy?
When and how?
How much guidance will I provide them?
How will I monitor how well students are
doing?

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Summary and the GLCE
 Find a GLCE at your grade level and
content area that would be suitable
to summarize.
 What steps would you have to take
in order for students to use
summary with the GLCE you chose
independently?
o Think-Pair-Share

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A Call to Arms…
Leading Change – What can you do?
Teachers need to have…
• Adequate modeling and
practice
• Feedback
• Allowances for differences in
implementation
• Celebration