This document provides information about HIV/AIDS treatment, including:
- Antiretroviral therapy (ART) involves taking a combination of three or more anti-HIV medications daily to prevent the virus from multiplying.
- When to start ART depends on a person's health and test results, with the goal of keeping the viral load undetectable and preventing immune system damage.
- Recommended first regimens include combinations of anti-HIV medications from different drug classes in order to control the virus most effectively.
This document provides an overview of living with HIV for someone who recently received a positive diagnosis. It explains what HIV and AIDS are, how the virus attacks and weakens the immune system, and how regular testing of CD4 count and viral load monitors disease progression and treatment effectiveness. The document advises seeking medical care from an experienced doctor and maintaining overall health through proper nutrition, exercise, and mental wellness practices. It notes that antiretroviral treatment may not be needed immediately depending on CD4 count and symptoms, but is usually required at some point to prevent AIDS. Connecting to local AIDS support organizations is also recommended for information, resources, and connecting with other HIV-positive individuals.
Consideringtreatmentandyourhealthcare 130129172100-phpapp01Positive Life
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This document provides information to help people living with HIV consider when to start treatment. It discusses how treatment has improved over time, with fewer side effects and easier regimens. Starting treatment earlier is generally recommended to preserve immune function and prevent long-term health issues. Factors like CD4 count, viral load trends, general health, and readiness should be considered. Recommended first line regimens include combinations of antiretrovirals from different drug classes. Understanding test results can show how well treatment is working. Resistance testing before starting treatment can help identify the best regimen.
This document provides an introduction to combination therapy for treating HIV. It discusses that combination therapy involves using three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress the virus. The document outlines that combination therapy is highly effective at reducing HIV-related illnesses and death when medication is taken as prescribed. It also discusses factors like CD4 count, viral load, adherence, resistance, and treatment guidelines that are considered when determining if and when a person should begin combination treatment.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It weakens a person's immune system by destroying white blood cells, making the body vulnerable to other infections and diseases. HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, unsafe blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. While some people experience flu-like symptoms shortly after infection, many live asymptomatic for years before developing AIDS. There is no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS, so prevention through safe sex practices and access to treatment are important.
The document discusses HIV/AIDS statistics, transmission, testing and prevention in Florida. It notes that there are over 40,000 new HIV infections annually in the US, with over 100,000 cases in Florida which has the third highest rate. The C.H.A.N.G.E. program aims to increase testing among at-risk groups through peer outreach and education to help reduce undiagnosed cases. Volunteers are trained to discuss HIV risks and testing confidentially with friends and contacts to encourage testing.
This document provides information to support people who have recently tested positive for HIV. It covers topics such as understanding HIV and how it has changed since the 1980s/1990s, important health considerations after diagnosis like getting medical care and developing a relationship with one's doctor, health monitoring tests like CD4 count and viral load, general health tips, and resources for support. The overall message is that people can live well with HIV by getting informed, actively managing their health, and accessing available support services.
HIV attacks and destroys cells of the immune system, specifically CD4+ T cells, weakening the body's ability to fight infections and disease. Over time, HIV can lead to AIDS if not treated. HIV is transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids. Common symptoms of HIV infection include fever, sore throat, rash, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. While there is no cure for HIV, antiretroviral treatment can suppress the virus and prevent progression to AIDS, allowing those infected to live long and healthy lives.
This document provides an overview of living with HIV for someone who recently received a positive diagnosis. It explains what HIV and AIDS are, how the virus attacks and weakens the immune system, and how regular testing of CD4 count and viral load monitors disease progression and treatment effectiveness. The document advises seeking medical care from an experienced doctor and maintaining overall health through proper nutrition, exercise, and mental wellness practices. It notes that antiretroviral treatment may not be needed immediately depending on CD4 count and symptoms, but is usually required at some point to prevent AIDS. Connecting to local AIDS support organizations is also recommended for information, resources, and connecting with other HIV-positive individuals.
Consideringtreatmentandyourhealthcare 130129172100-phpapp01Positive Life
Â
This document provides information to help people living with HIV consider when to start treatment. It discusses how treatment has improved over time, with fewer side effects and easier regimens. Starting treatment earlier is generally recommended to preserve immune function and prevent long-term health issues. Factors like CD4 count, viral load trends, general health, and readiness should be considered. Recommended first line regimens include combinations of antiretrovirals from different drug classes. Understanding test results can show how well treatment is working. Resistance testing before starting treatment can help identify the best regimen.
This document provides an introduction to combination therapy for treating HIV. It discusses that combination therapy involves using three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress the virus. The document outlines that combination therapy is highly effective at reducing HIV-related illnesses and death when medication is taken as prescribed. It also discusses factors like CD4 count, viral load, adherence, resistance, and treatment guidelines that are considered when determining if and when a person should begin combination treatment.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It weakens a person's immune system by destroying white blood cells, making the body vulnerable to other infections and diseases. HIV is transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, unsafe blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. While some people experience flu-like symptoms shortly after infection, many live asymptomatic for years before developing AIDS. There is no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS, so prevention through safe sex practices and access to treatment are important.
The document discusses HIV/AIDS statistics, transmission, testing and prevention in Florida. It notes that there are over 40,000 new HIV infections annually in the US, with over 100,000 cases in Florida which has the third highest rate. The C.H.A.N.G.E. program aims to increase testing among at-risk groups through peer outreach and education to help reduce undiagnosed cases. Volunteers are trained to discuss HIV risks and testing confidentially with friends and contacts to encourage testing.
This document provides information to support people who have recently tested positive for HIV. It covers topics such as understanding HIV and how it has changed since the 1980s/1990s, important health considerations after diagnosis like getting medical care and developing a relationship with one's doctor, health monitoring tests like CD4 count and viral load, general health tips, and resources for support. The overall message is that people can live well with HIV by getting informed, actively managing their health, and accessing available support services.
HIV attacks and destroys cells of the immune system, specifically CD4+ T cells, weakening the body's ability to fight infections and disease. Over time, HIV can lead to AIDS if not treated. HIV is transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids. Common symptoms of HIV infection include fever, sore throat, rash, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. While there is no cure for HIV, antiretroviral treatment can suppress the virus and prevent progression to AIDS, allowing those infected to live long and healthy lives.
Counselling for newly diagnosed HIV patients in Malaysia challenges & best p...Hidzuan Hashim
Â
This document discusses counseling challenges and best practices for newly diagnosed HIV patients in Malaysia. It outlines the many psychological hurdles patients face post-diagnosis, from denial and depression to concerns about treatment and disclosure. Effective counseling is crucial for addressing individual barriers, providing support, and ensuring treatment adherence. The ideal counselor has knowledge about HIV as well as counseling skills, a non-judgmental attitude, and understands their own limitations. Several hospitals in Malaysia have implemented successful peer support programs through partnerships between medical staff and community organizations.
After You've Tested Positive (Additional PLUS Reading Materials)Positive_Force
Â
This document provides an overview of information for someone who has recently tested positive for HIV. It discusses how living with HIV today is different than in the past due to improved treatment options. The document also covers basic information about HIV and the immune system, when a person may need to start HIV treatment, and general health topics like developing a relationship with a doctor and considering support systems. The goal is to help those newly diagnosed with HIV understand their diagnosis and learn how to live well by taking care of their health and accessing available resources.
National HIV testing and treatment guidelines BISHAL SAPKOTA
Â
1. The document provides guidelines for HIV testing, treatment, and management in Nepal. It summarizes global HIV statistics and outlines the epidemiology of HIV in Nepal.
2. Guidelines are provided for HIV testing services, diagnosis, treatment, monitoring of people on antiretroviral therapy (ART), and management of coinfections. Recommendations include "treat all" and early infant diagnosis.
3. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), ART for prevention, post-exposure prophylaxis, and combination prevention are discussed. Clinical features and management of pediatric HIV are also reviewed.
Hepatitis A, B, and C are viral infections that cause inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis A spreads through ingestion of contaminated food or water. Hepatitis B spreads through bodily fluids and can be sexually transmitted or spread by sharing needles. Hepatitis C primarily spreads through exposure to infected blood, such as sharing needles. While symptoms are usually mild and resolve on their own for Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and C can become chronic infections requiring treatment to prevent further liver damage. Testing identifies exposure and active infections, and immunizations protect against Hepatitis A and B.
This document discusses HIV/AIDS, including transmission, testing, treatment, and comprehensive care approaches. It provides details on:
- How HIV enters the body, common routes of transmission, and viral load in different body fluids.
- The stages of HIV infection and testing methods, including the window period and antibody response.
- Treatment options like HAART and the importance of early diagnosis and treatment.
- Components of comprehensive care including medical, psychological, and socioeconomic support, with an emphasis on prevention and respect for human rights.
HIV can lead to AIDS if not properly managed, with no cure currently available. Over 1 million people in the US live with HIV, though many are unaware of their infection status. HIV spreads through contact with bodily fluids and is most common among gay/bisexual men. Consistent condom use and getting tested regularly can help reduce risk of transmission. While treatment can suppress HIV and reduce risk of passing it to others, abstinence and limiting partners are the most effective prevention methods.
HIV, AIDS AND STD's
HIV
HIV stands for human immunity deficiency virus. HIV weakens the body immune system by entering into white blood cell (lymphocytes) and binds itself to chromosome and integrates into the genetic material. The virus now multiplies very fast using genetic materials of White Blood Cells. The daughter virus invades White Blood Cells destroy and kill them. As more White Blood Cells are killed the body becomes less and less fight against disease. Patient with aids are prone to opportunistic infection caused by fungi, bacteria and protozoa.
In nutshell people with AIDS die with disease their body cannot resist. These diseases are referred to as opportunistic infection. E.g. tuberculosis, severe diarrhea, skin cancer and pneumonia.
Â
AIDS
AIDS stand for; Acquire Immune Deficiency Syndrome. For someone with AIDS T-helper fall below.
the T-helper count for health person range between 450 and 1200
CAUSES
AIDS is viral infection caused by a strain of a virus called HIV. HIV means Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV mainly found in body fluids such as blood, semen and vaginal secretion. Also traces of HIV found on saliva, tear and sweat
Primary stage (window stage) : It does not show any symptoms except for slight flu HIV test result is negative
A-symptomatic stage : Has no symptoms but the HIV test is positive
Full blown aids : Where by one gets various opportunistic infections and diseases
          SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION
These are infection, which are transmitted through sexually contact during sexually intercourse. Sexually transmitted disease are also referred to as venereal disease
  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIV, AIDS AND STDâs
HIV is sexually transmitted. Having STD's can increase risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV.
Some STIâs such as chlamydia cause open sores in the skin and become exit point into and from the brood stream of HIV.
This presentation discusses:
Why it is a Global Health Issue?
Difference between HIV and AIDS?
Signs and Symptoms
Routes of Transmission
Risk factors
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
HIV and TB - the interconnection between the two. Why are people with HIV more likely to get TB? Why are there so many cases of TB now? What are the symptoms of TB?
This document provides an overview of an HIV update presentation given by Dr. Ellen Tedaldi. It discusses the epidemiology of HIV in Philadelphia, noting higher rates than national averages and most new infections occurring in heterosexuals aged 25-45. It covers screening and diagnosis guidelines, evaluation of HIV+ patients, treatment updates including the benefits of early antiretroviral therapy initiation, and ophthalmology considerations for patients with low CD4 counts. Key aspects of monitoring and management of HIV patients are summarized, including recommended initial antiretroviral regimens and the importance of adherence for long-term treatment success.
Measuring the state of the immune systemwith test newRachel Aird
Â
The document discusses the immune system and how to measure its strength through CD4 cell counts. It states that the immune system protects the body from sickness like an army protects a country. It explains that CD4 counts are used to measure immune system strength, with lower counts indicating a weaker system. Counts below 200 indicate AIDS while 350 or lower puts one at risk for TB. Those who test HIV positive should start antiretroviral treatment immediately and maintain a healthy lifestyle to keep their immune system strong.
COUNSELLING IN HIV/AIDS
Qurrot Ulain Taher
P.G Diploma in Nutrition & Dietetics
Dietetic Techniques & Patient Counseling
HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is a result of the development of the HIV virus into a more serious condition. AIDS was first recognised by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s.
Understanding HIV
HIV is a contagious infection which attacks the immune system, reducing its effectiveness and leaving the body susceptible to infections. The HIV infection damages the cells the body needs to fight illnesses. AIDS can be diagnosed when the number of immune system cells (CD4 cells) in the blood of a person with HIV drops below a certain level.
There is no cure for HIV or AIDS, but there are treatments that can slow down the disease, and help prevent the onset of AIDS. It takes around ten years for someone with HIV to develop AIDS, but it can be prevented with early detection and treatment of the HIV
PREVENTION OF Mother to child transmission
Treatment for HIV and AIDS
HAART
TYPES OF HIV TESTS
Why Is Counseling Necessary
Objectives
Whom to counsel
Characteristics of a Counselor
Skills Required in Counseling
Stages of Counseling
Risk assessment counseling
Pre test counseling
Post test counseling
Follow up counseling
Role of Counselor
Advocacy role
Health education
Referral
Clinical and therapeutic role
Special Situations in HIV Counseling
Pregnant women
Childless couples
Breast feeding positive mothers
Spouse and family members of HIV infected persons
This document discusses World AIDS Day 2017. It provides key facts about HIV/AIDS, including that over 36 million people worldwide are living with HIV, and outlines what life is like for those living with HIV today with effective treatment. The document encourages readers to help end HIV stigma by challenging misconceptions, and suggests ways to get involved on World AIDS Day like wearing a red ribbon to show support.
This document contains a quiz on HIV, prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). It is divided into three rounds, with the first round covering transmission rates, persistence of maternal antibodies in infants, and factors affecting transmission. The second round focuses on PEP indications. The third round is a rapid fire round testing knowledge on various topics related to HIV in pregnancy.
Technology, HIV risk, and HIV prevention among young African American MSMYTH
Â
Presented at YTH Live 2014's Poster Session, review findings from an ongoing HIV prevention trial for young black men who have sex with men (YBMSM) in Dallas and Houston TX.
Actinomycosis is a rare bacterial infection caused by Actinomycetaceae bacteria. It is unusual in that it can spread slowly through body tissue. Symptoms vary depending on the infected area but may include swelling, tissue damage, abscesses, and sinus tracts. It is usually diagnosed based on symptoms and appearance of sulfur granules in sinus tract pus. Treatment involves long-term antibiotics for 6-12 months to prevent complications like abscess spread. Maintaining good oral hygiene helps prevent the most common type which starts in the mouth or face.
1. The document discusses guidelines for proper waste disposal from laboratories, including which types of waste can be disposed of in yellow bags, autoclave bags, black bags, sharps boxes, and other containers.
2. Certain hazardous wastes like chemicals, microbiological cultures, and genetically modified materials require special treatment like autoclaving before disposal, while other wastes like packaging materials and paper towels can be disposed of in black bags.
3. The guidelines also cover waste storage, transport, and methods of final disposal including autoclaving, chemical disinfection, incineration, and regulated discharge into sewerage systems. Proper labeling and containment of wastes is emphasized.
scientific classifiction of Bacillus pumilusMicrobiology
Â
Bacillus pumilus is a rod-shaped, aerobic, spore-forming bacterium commonly found in soil. It has one circular chromosome containing around 4000 genes. While rarely pathogenic, some B. pumilus strains have caused infections in humans and food poisoning. B. pumilus plays various environmental roles as a plant growth promoter, in shrimp gut bacteria inhibition, and nitrogen fixation. It is also used as a model organism in research and has industrial applications.
Abiotic and biotic factors can cause plant diseases. Abiotic factors include nutrient abnormalities, pesticide exposure, environmental pollution, temperature extremes, moisture issues, and light levels. Biotic factors are living organisms like fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and parasitic plants. Common symptoms of diseases caused by these factors include chlorosis, leaf curling, root knots, and mosaic patterns. Nutrient deficiencies or toxicities can result in yellowing. Pesticide drift may cause leaf cupping. Fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and parasitic plants can infect and damage various plant parts through their different life cycles and modes of transmission.
This document discusses biosafety levels and containment practices for handling biohazardous agents in laboratories. It describes three biosafety levels (BSL1-3) with increasing safety requirements according to the hazard level of the agents. BSL1 requires standard microbiological practices. BSL2 requires controlled access, biological safety cabinets for aerosol-generating procedures, personal protective equipment, and waste decontamination. BSL3 involves handling agents of high risk and requires additional containment such as physical separation of the laboratory, controlled access, required personal protective equipment, decontamination of all waste and vacuum lines, and use of biological safety cabinets for all procedures involving biohazardous materials.
Counselling for newly diagnosed HIV patients in Malaysia challenges & best p...Hidzuan Hashim
Â
This document discusses counseling challenges and best practices for newly diagnosed HIV patients in Malaysia. It outlines the many psychological hurdles patients face post-diagnosis, from denial and depression to concerns about treatment and disclosure. Effective counseling is crucial for addressing individual barriers, providing support, and ensuring treatment adherence. The ideal counselor has knowledge about HIV as well as counseling skills, a non-judgmental attitude, and understands their own limitations. Several hospitals in Malaysia have implemented successful peer support programs through partnerships between medical staff and community organizations.
After You've Tested Positive (Additional PLUS Reading Materials)Positive_Force
Â
This document provides an overview of information for someone who has recently tested positive for HIV. It discusses how living with HIV today is different than in the past due to improved treatment options. The document also covers basic information about HIV and the immune system, when a person may need to start HIV treatment, and general health topics like developing a relationship with a doctor and considering support systems. The goal is to help those newly diagnosed with HIV understand their diagnosis and learn how to live well by taking care of their health and accessing available resources.
National HIV testing and treatment guidelines BISHAL SAPKOTA
Â
1. The document provides guidelines for HIV testing, treatment, and management in Nepal. It summarizes global HIV statistics and outlines the epidemiology of HIV in Nepal.
2. Guidelines are provided for HIV testing services, diagnosis, treatment, monitoring of people on antiretroviral therapy (ART), and management of coinfections. Recommendations include "treat all" and early infant diagnosis.
3. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), ART for prevention, post-exposure prophylaxis, and combination prevention are discussed. Clinical features and management of pediatric HIV are also reviewed.
Hepatitis A, B, and C are viral infections that cause inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis A spreads through ingestion of contaminated food or water. Hepatitis B spreads through bodily fluids and can be sexually transmitted or spread by sharing needles. Hepatitis C primarily spreads through exposure to infected blood, such as sharing needles. While symptoms are usually mild and resolve on their own for Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and C can become chronic infections requiring treatment to prevent further liver damage. Testing identifies exposure and active infections, and immunizations protect against Hepatitis A and B.
This document discusses HIV/AIDS, including transmission, testing, treatment, and comprehensive care approaches. It provides details on:
- How HIV enters the body, common routes of transmission, and viral load in different body fluids.
- The stages of HIV infection and testing methods, including the window period and antibody response.
- Treatment options like HAART and the importance of early diagnosis and treatment.
- Components of comprehensive care including medical, psychological, and socioeconomic support, with an emphasis on prevention and respect for human rights.
HIV can lead to AIDS if not properly managed, with no cure currently available. Over 1 million people in the US live with HIV, though many are unaware of their infection status. HIV spreads through contact with bodily fluids and is most common among gay/bisexual men. Consistent condom use and getting tested regularly can help reduce risk of transmission. While treatment can suppress HIV and reduce risk of passing it to others, abstinence and limiting partners are the most effective prevention methods.
HIV, AIDS AND STD's
HIV
HIV stands for human immunity deficiency virus. HIV weakens the body immune system by entering into white blood cell (lymphocytes) and binds itself to chromosome and integrates into the genetic material. The virus now multiplies very fast using genetic materials of White Blood Cells. The daughter virus invades White Blood Cells destroy and kill them. As more White Blood Cells are killed the body becomes less and less fight against disease. Patient with aids are prone to opportunistic infection caused by fungi, bacteria and protozoa.
In nutshell people with AIDS die with disease their body cannot resist. These diseases are referred to as opportunistic infection. E.g. tuberculosis, severe diarrhea, skin cancer and pneumonia.
Â
AIDS
AIDS stand for; Acquire Immune Deficiency Syndrome. For someone with AIDS T-helper fall below.
the T-helper count for health person range between 450 and 1200
CAUSES
AIDS is viral infection caused by a strain of a virus called HIV. HIV means Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV mainly found in body fluids such as blood, semen and vaginal secretion. Also traces of HIV found on saliva, tear and sweat
Primary stage (window stage) : It does not show any symptoms except for slight flu HIV test result is negative
A-symptomatic stage : Has no symptoms but the HIV test is positive
Full blown aids : Where by one gets various opportunistic infections and diseases
          SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION
These are infection, which are transmitted through sexually contact during sexually intercourse. Sexually transmitted disease are also referred to as venereal disease
  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIV, AIDS AND STDâs
HIV is sexually transmitted. Having STD's can increase risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV.
Some STIâs such as chlamydia cause open sores in the skin and become exit point into and from the brood stream of HIV.
This presentation discusses:
Why it is a Global Health Issue?
Difference between HIV and AIDS?
Signs and Symptoms
Routes of Transmission
Risk factors
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
HIV and TB - the interconnection between the two. Why are people with HIV more likely to get TB? Why are there so many cases of TB now? What are the symptoms of TB?
This document provides an overview of an HIV update presentation given by Dr. Ellen Tedaldi. It discusses the epidemiology of HIV in Philadelphia, noting higher rates than national averages and most new infections occurring in heterosexuals aged 25-45. It covers screening and diagnosis guidelines, evaluation of HIV+ patients, treatment updates including the benefits of early antiretroviral therapy initiation, and ophthalmology considerations for patients with low CD4 counts. Key aspects of monitoring and management of HIV patients are summarized, including recommended initial antiretroviral regimens and the importance of adherence for long-term treatment success.
Measuring the state of the immune systemwith test newRachel Aird
Â
The document discusses the immune system and how to measure its strength through CD4 cell counts. It states that the immune system protects the body from sickness like an army protects a country. It explains that CD4 counts are used to measure immune system strength, with lower counts indicating a weaker system. Counts below 200 indicate AIDS while 350 or lower puts one at risk for TB. Those who test HIV positive should start antiretroviral treatment immediately and maintain a healthy lifestyle to keep their immune system strong.
COUNSELLING IN HIV/AIDS
Qurrot Ulain Taher
P.G Diploma in Nutrition & Dietetics
Dietetic Techniques & Patient Counseling
HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS is a result of the development of the HIV virus into a more serious condition. AIDS was first recognised by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified in the early 1980s.
Understanding HIV
HIV is a contagious infection which attacks the immune system, reducing its effectiveness and leaving the body susceptible to infections. The HIV infection damages the cells the body needs to fight illnesses. AIDS can be diagnosed when the number of immune system cells (CD4 cells) in the blood of a person with HIV drops below a certain level.
There is no cure for HIV or AIDS, but there are treatments that can slow down the disease, and help prevent the onset of AIDS. It takes around ten years for someone with HIV to develop AIDS, but it can be prevented with early detection and treatment of the HIV
PREVENTION OF Mother to child transmission
Treatment for HIV and AIDS
HAART
TYPES OF HIV TESTS
Why Is Counseling Necessary
Objectives
Whom to counsel
Characteristics of a Counselor
Skills Required in Counseling
Stages of Counseling
Risk assessment counseling
Pre test counseling
Post test counseling
Follow up counseling
Role of Counselor
Advocacy role
Health education
Referral
Clinical and therapeutic role
Special Situations in HIV Counseling
Pregnant women
Childless couples
Breast feeding positive mothers
Spouse and family members of HIV infected persons
This document discusses World AIDS Day 2017. It provides key facts about HIV/AIDS, including that over 36 million people worldwide are living with HIV, and outlines what life is like for those living with HIV today with effective treatment. The document encourages readers to help end HIV stigma by challenging misconceptions, and suggests ways to get involved on World AIDS Day like wearing a red ribbon to show support.
This document contains a quiz on HIV, prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). It is divided into three rounds, with the first round covering transmission rates, persistence of maternal antibodies in infants, and factors affecting transmission. The second round focuses on PEP indications. The third round is a rapid fire round testing knowledge on various topics related to HIV in pregnancy.
Technology, HIV risk, and HIV prevention among young African American MSMYTH
Â
Presented at YTH Live 2014's Poster Session, review findings from an ongoing HIV prevention trial for young black men who have sex with men (YBMSM) in Dallas and Houston TX.
Actinomycosis is a rare bacterial infection caused by Actinomycetaceae bacteria. It is unusual in that it can spread slowly through body tissue. Symptoms vary depending on the infected area but may include swelling, tissue damage, abscesses, and sinus tracts. It is usually diagnosed based on symptoms and appearance of sulfur granules in sinus tract pus. Treatment involves long-term antibiotics for 6-12 months to prevent complications like abscess spread. Maintaining good oral hygiene helps prevent the most common type which starts in the mouth or face.
1. The document discusses guidelines for proper waste disposal from laboratories, including which types of waste can be disposed of in yellow bags, autoclave bags, black bags, sharps boxes, and other containers.
2. Certain hazardous wastes like chemicals, microbiological cultures, and genetically modified materials require special treatment like autoclaving before disposal, while other wastes like packaging materials and paper towels can be disposed of in black bags.
3. The guidelines also cover waste storage, transport, and methods of final disposal including autoclaving, chemical disinfection, incineration, and regulated discharge into sewerage systems. Proper labeling and containment of wastes is emphasized.
scientific classifiction of Bacillus pumilusMicrobiology
Â
Bacillus pumilus is a rod-shaped, aerobic, spore-forming bacterium commonly found in soil. It has one circular chromosome containing around 4000 genes. While rarely pathogenic, some B. pumilus strains have caused infections in humans and food poisoning. B. pumilus plays various environmental roles as a plant growth promoter, in shrimp gut bacteria inhibition, and nitrogen fixation. It is also used as a model organism in research and has industrial applications.
Abiotic and biotic factors can cause plant diseases. Abiotic factors include nutrient abnormalities, pesticide exposure, environmental pollution, temperature extremes, moisture issues, and light levels. Biotic factors are living organisms like fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and parasitic plants. Common symptoms of diseases caused by these factors include chlorosis, leaf curling, root knots, and mosaic patterns. Nutrient deficiencies or toxicities can result in yellowing. Pesticide drift may cause leaf cupping. Fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and parasitic plants can infect and damage various plant parts through their different life cycles and modes of transmission.
This document discusses biosafety levels and containment practices for handling biohazardous agents in laboratories. It describes three biosafety levels (BSL1-3) with increasing safety requirements according to the hazard level of the agents. BSL1 requires standard microbiological practices. BSL2 requires controlled access, biological safety cabinets for aerosol-generating procedures, personal protective equipment, and waste decontamination. BSL3 involves handling agents of high risk and requires additional containment such as physical separation of the laboratory, controlled access, required personal protective equipment, decontamination of all waste and vacuum lines, and use of biological safety cabinets for all procedures involving biohazardous materials.
Microbes isolation from different environmentsMicrobiology
Â
The document describes methods for isolating and identifying microbes from various samples. It discusses taking soil, water, food, slag and other samples and performing serial dilutions to isolate colonies. It explains how to perform sub-culturing to achieve pure cultures and then use gram staining and biochemical tests to identify the bacterial species. Specific tests are described to identify Staphylococcus aureus, including the mannitol salt agar test and coagulase test.
This document discusses plant diseases, their importance, causes, and principles of disease control. It notes that plant diseases have impacted humanity throughout history, causing famines from crop losses of 30-50% in some areas. Environmental factors like temperature, humidity, soil properties, and nutrients can influence disease development. Control methods aim to exclude, eradicate, or protect against pathogens using practices like sanitation, crop rotation, and regulating the environment, along with developing host resistance. The key message is that prayer and respecting one's mother are more protective than any security.
1) The document describes a method for quantitatively analyzing milk samples through standard plate counting to determine the number of microbes present and assess milk quality.
2) The method involves serially diluting milk samples in saline or distilled water, pouring samples onto agar plates using the pour plate method, incubating the plates, and then counting the bacterial colonies that grow to determine the concentration of microbes in the original milk sample.
3) Based on the results, milk samples with bacterial colonies over 300 would be considered low quality, while those under 300 would be good quality.
PCR is a technique used to amplify DNA. There are several types of PCR including multiplex PCR, nested PCR, RT-PCR, quantitative PCR, hot-start PCR, touchdown PCR, assembly PCR, colony PCR, methylation-specific PCR, and LAMP assay. Each type has a specific application or mechanism. For example, multiplex PCR allows simultaneous analysis of multiple targets, nested PCR increases specificity, RT-PCR converts RNA to cDNA, and quantitative PCR measures the amount of target DNA or RNA.
Identification of gram positive and gram negative bacteriaMicrobiology
Â
The document describes procedures for identifying gram positive and gram negative bacteria through gram staining and biochemical tests. Gram staining involves staining bacterial smears with crystal violet, iodine, decolorizer, and safranin to identify bacteria as gram positive (purple) or gram negative (pink) based on cell wall structure. Biochemical tests described include catalase, coagulase, oxidase, indole, and citrate tests to further differentiate bacterial species based on enzymatic activity.
Types of PCR include allele-specific PCR, which uses primers targeting single nucleotide polymorphisms to detect specific alleles. Assembly PCR artificially synthesizes long DNA sequences from overlapping oligonucleotides. Asymmetric PCR preferentially amplifies one DNA strand. Colony PCR screens bacterial clones. Hot-start PCR reduces nonspecific amplification. Inverse PCR amplifies known internal sequences after circularizing and digesting DNA. Ligation-mediated PCR uses linkers to amplify target fragments. Methylation-specific PCR identifies DNA methylation patterns. Long PCR amplifies over 5kb. Miniprimer PCR uses very short primers. Multiplex PCR targets multiple genes. Nested PCR uses two primer sets for increased sensitivity. Quantitative PCR measures starting DNA amounts
Babesiosis is caused by Babesia parasites that infect red blood cells and are transmitted through tick bites. It is most common in the Northeast and Midwest U.S. during warm months. While many infected people do not show symptoms, some experience flu-like symptoms. It can be severe for those without a spleen or with weak immune systems. Effective treatment is available. To prevent babesiosis, simple steps can be taken to reduce tick exposure like walking on cleared trails, applying repellent, and conducting full-body tick checks after being outdoors.
1. Genetics plays an important role in medicine through studies of inheritance patterns, gene mapping, analysis of disease mechanisms, and diagnosis/treatment of genetic diseases like gene therapy.
2. DNA isolation involves extracting DNA from samples and separating it from other cell components. It is used for scientific research, medicine like outbreak tracing, and forensic science like identification. Various methods disrupt cells, remove proteins, and recover DNA.
3. DNA purification removes contaminants and avoids DNA degradation. Key steps are cell lysis, contaminant removal through various separation techniques, and DNA concentration. Evaluation assesses concentration, purity through absorbance ratios, and degradation through gel electrophoresis.
Morphology and general and general properties of fungiMicrobiology
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Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that are classified in their own kingdom. They differ from plants and bacteria in their cell walls containing chitin. Fungi feed through absorption of nutrients from their surroundings. They grow through hyphae that secrete enzymes to break down their substrate. Most fungi are saprophytes that feed on dead material. Their morphology varies from unicellular yeasts to multicellular molds made of branching hyphae. Fungi are classified based on characteristics like hypha structure and type of reproduction and spore formation. Many fungi are pathogens that can cause superficial infections of the skin or deeper subcutaneous and systemic infections.
Human taeniasis is caused by three tapeworm species that infect humans after they ingest raw or undercooked beef or pork containing the infective cysticerci larvae. The tapeworms are Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), T. solium (pork tapeworm), and T. asiatica (Asian tapeworm). Humans pass tapeworm eggs or segments in their feces, which can survive in the environment for days to months and infect cattle or pigs. Eating undercooked meat from these infected animals then causes human taeniasis. Symptoms are usually mild but can include abdominal pain. Diagnosis is made by microscopic examination of stool samples for eggs. Treatment is with pra
Upstream & downstream processing of antibiotics,hormones,vaccinesMicrobiology
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The document discusses the upstream and downstream processes involved in the production of antibiotics, hormones, and vaccines from microorganisms. Upstream processing involves inoculum preparation, culture media preparation, and fermentation. Downstream processing involves separation, purification, and formulation steps to recover and purify the desired products. These include solid-liquid separation, cell disruption, concentration, and purification techniques like chromatography. The specific upstream and downstream processes for producing penicillin from Penicillium chrysogenum are also outlined.
Enterobacteriaceae , Enterobacter and their Biochemical TestMicrobiology
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The document discusses the Enterobacteriaceae family of bacteria, which includes many pathogens. It focuses on the genus Enterobacter, describing it as a rod-shaped, facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative bacterium that can cause opportunistic infections. Key tests used to identify Enterobacter include growth on EMB agar and testing for indole production using Kovac's reagent, with a positive result indicated by a red color change.
1. Genetics plays an important role in medicine through studies of inheritance patterns, gene mapping, analysis of disease mechanisms, and diagnosis/treatment of genetic diseases like gene therapy.
2. DNA isolation involves extracting DNA from samples and separating it from other cell components. It is used for scientific research, medicine like outbreak tracing, and forensic science like identification. Various methods disrupt cells, remove proteins, and recover DNA.
3. DNA purification removes contaminants and avoids DNA degradation. Key steps are cell lysis, contaminant removal through various separation techniques, and DNA concentration. Evaluation assesses concentration, purity through absorbance ratios, and degradation using gel electrophoresis.
Cyclones form due to rising warm air that cools and condenses to form clouds. If the air starts spinning horizontally over tropical oceans, it can develop into a tropical depression, storm, and eventually a hurricane or typhoon depending on location and wind speeds. Cyclones cause heavy rainfall, landslides, damage to infrastructure and homes, disruption to ecosystems and agriculture, and harm to human and animal life. Coastal areas need to prepare shelters and strengthen infrastructure to mitigate cyclonic damage.
HIV is a virus that causes AIDS by attacking the immune system. It can be transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, unsafe blood transfusions, and from mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding. While HIV itself may not cause symptoms for years, it is diagnosed through blood tests detecting antibodies or the virus. As the virus destroys immune cells over time, it leaves the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections defining AIDS. Though there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral treatment can suppress the virus and prevent opportunistic infections, allowing people to live long and healthy lives.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the bodyâs immune system, making a person more vulnerable to other infections and diseases.
If HIV is not treated, it can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
There is currently no effective cure. Once people get HIV, they have it for life.
But with proper medical care, HIV can be controlled. People with HIV who get effective HIV treatment can live long, healthy lives and protect their partners.
This document provides a quick overview of HIV/AIDS, including descriptions of transmission, stages of infection, symptoms, testing and treatment. It is intended for community leaders and health workers without specialized training. Key points covered include that HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, leading to AIDS if untreated; it is transmitted through bodily fluids but not through casual contact; and while there is no cure, antiretroviral treatment can suppress the virus and prevent progression to AIDS. The document also provides information on testing locations and strategies for prevention.
This document discusses reproductive health and HIV/AIDS. It defines reproductive health and explains why it is important. It then discusses HIV/AIDS in depth, including what HIV is, how it attacks and destroys immune cells, its symptoms, how it differs from AIDS, how it is transmitted, and its treatment and prevention. Prevention of HIV transmission involves abstaining from sex, being faithful to one partner, and correct and consistent condom use.
This document discusses unsafe sex practices and HIV/AIDS. It defines unsafe sex and lists reasons for high-risk behavior, including lack of education and access to healthcare. The document describes what HIV is and how it progresses to AIDS if left untreated. Early HIV symptoms, transmission facts, testing methods, the window period, and AIDS symptoms are outlined in detail. Treatment options like antiretroviral therapy can manage HIV and prevent AIDS progression.
HIV is a virus that causes AIDS by attacking immune cells. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be passed from mother to child. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, treatment can suppress the virus and prevent opportunistic infections. Preventive measures include using condoms, getting tested, and not sharing needles.
HIV is a virus that causes AIDS by attacking immune cells. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be passed from mother to child. While there is no cure for HIV/AIDS, treatment can suppress the virus and prevent opportunistic infections. Preventive measures include using condoms, getting tested, and not sharing needles.
Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) involves HIV counseling and testing where a person chooses to learn their HIV status. There are typically two counseling sessions - one before the test to make an informed decision about testing, and one after receiving the results. The government is encouraging testing to reduce stigma and help people learn their status earlier to stay healthy. Testing involves a blood draw and results within 1-3 weeks, while rapid tests provide results within 15 minutes. Counseling focuses on understanding HIV/AIDS, coping with results, and positive living strategies like stress management, nutrition, and treatment.
This document provides an overview of HIV/AIDS, including causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. It discusses that HIV weakens the immune system, leading to AIDS if untreated. HIV can be transmitted sexually, through blood or breastfeeding. Early symptoms may include flu-like illness, while later symptoms indicate late-stage infection. Diagnosis involves blood tests to detect HIV. While there is no cure, antiretroviral treatment can control the virus and prevent transmission. Prevention methods include safe sex practices, not sharing drug equipment, and pre-exposure or post-exposure prophylaxis. Proper treatment and adherence are important for long-term management.
This document provides information on HIV/AIDS including its epidemiology, transmission, stages, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. It describes HIV/AIDS as a global public health issue and outlines prevention strategies like safe sex practices, antiretroviral treatment, prevention of mother-to-child transmission and harm reduction for intravenous drug users. Statistics on HIV prevalence in Pakistan are presented alongside the national AIDS control program and its strategies to promote awareness, testing and care.
Basics of HIV and STIs (English) 03292023 (1).pptxGelizaRecede
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This document provides information about HIV/AIDS in the Philippines. It discusses basics of HIV including transmission methods, prevention strategies, and the Philippine HIV and AIDS Policy Act (RA 11166). Some key points include:
- As of 2022, there have been over 110,000 reported cumulative HIV cases in the Philippines since 1984.
- Risky behaviors often start in youth aged 14-18 while protective behaviors like condom use are adopted later.
- RA 11166 aims to expand HIV testing, ensure treatment access, prohibit discrimination, and provide benefits to people living with HIV.
- The document emphasizes strategies to prevent transmission like abstinence, mutual monogamy, condom use, education, and early testing
This document provides information about HIV/AIDS including:
- How HIV is transmitted through body fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk.
- Common routes of HIV transmission include unprotected sex, sharing needles, occupational exposure, and from mother to child during birth or breastfeeding.
- It discusses testing and screening for HIV, the window period of initial infection, and importance of early testing and diagnosis.
- Risk reduction strategies like condom use and avoiding risky behaviors are covered.
- Laws around HIV testing in North Dakota are also summarized.
HAP 752 Semester Long Project Write-Up Koyin Aladesuru LinkedinKoyin Aladesuru
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The document describes an HIV/AIDS tracking and management system. It includes two scenarios: 1) conducting an HIV risk assessment and prescribing PrEP for high-risk negative patients, and 2) confirming a positive HIV test, monitoring viral load and CD4 counts, and checking for drug interactions when prescribing antiretroviral therapy. Entities for the system include patients, providers, test results, and medications. The system aims to improve HIV care through risk screening, prevention, treatment monitoring via alerts and clinical decision support.
This document provides information about Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), including:
- AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which weakens the immune system leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
- HIV progresses through several stages from initial infection to AIDS. As it progresses it destroys CD4 cells weakening the immune system.
- HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sex, sharing needles, from mother to child during pregnancy/birth, or through blood transfusions. Prevention methods like condoms and treatment can reduce transmission risk.
- Factors like lifestyle, stress levels, and coping style can influence how quickly HIV develops into AIDS. Treatment adherence is
Considering Treatment and Your Health Care (Additional PLUS Reading Materials)Positive_Force
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This document provides information to help people living with HIV consider starting antiretroviral treatment. It discusses how treatment has improved significantly in recent years. It recommends starting treatment when the CD4 count falls below 350 or viral load rises above 100,000, but notes some experts recommend starting immediately after diagnosis. The document reviews classes of antiretroviral drugs, recommended first-line regimens, understanding test results, and getting health care coverage and support before starting treatment.
HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by destroying CD4+ T cells and weakening the immune system. It is spherical in structure and contains two copies of RNA along with enzymes. HIV infection occurs through bodily fluids and replicates by reverse transcribing its RNA into DNA. There is no cure for HIV/AIDS but treatment can suppress the virus and prevent transmission through condom use, pre-exposure prophylaxis, testing and treatment of partners, and needle exchange programs.
Epidemiology of HIV & AIDS.pptx presentation 2024Motahar Alam
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Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS encompasses the study of the distribution and determinants of HIV infection and AIDS-related illnesses within populations. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), a condition characterized by a weakened immune system, making individuals susceptible to various infections and illnesses.
Key aspects of the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS include:
Prevalence and Incidence: Prevalence refers to the total number of people living with HIV/AIDS within a population at a specific time, while incidence refers to the rate of new infections occurring within a given period. These measures help understand the burden of the disease and its spread over time.
Demographic Patterns: HIV/AIDS affects different demographic groups differently. Factors such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and geographical location can influence susceptibility, access to healthcare, and outcomes. For example, in many regions, young adults and certain minority populations may have higher rates of infection.
Transmission Routes: Understanding how HIV is transmitted is crucial for prevention efforts. HIV primarily spreads through unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing contaminated needles or syringes, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding. Other modes of transmission include blood transfusions (though rare in regions with screening protocols) and occupational exposure.
Risk Factors: Certain behaviors and circumstances increase the risk of HIV transmission. These include having multiple sexual partners, engaging in unprotected sex, using intravenous drugs, lack of access to healthcare, poverty, stigma, and discrimination. Additionally, structural factors such as laws and policies can influence risk behaviors and access to prevention and treatment services.
Global Distribution: HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic, but its prevalence varies widely between countries and regions. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the most affected, with the highest burden of HIV infections worldwide. However, significant progress has been made in some regions, while new challenges emerge in others, such as Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Progress in Prevention and Treatment: Efforts to combat HIV/AIDS include prevention strategies such as promoting condom use, harm reduction programs for injecting drug users, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and comprehensive sexual education. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has transformed HIV/AIDS into a manageable chronic condition for many, reducing mortality and transmission rates.
Challenges and Future Directions: Despite significant progress, challenges remain in the global response to HIV/AIDS. These include disparities in access to healthcare, stigma and discrimination, funding gaps, emergence of drug-resistant strains, and persistent barriers to prevention and treatment in certain populations.
The document discusses HIV and AIDS. It explains that HIV originated from chimpanzees in West Africa and was transmitted to humans through contact with their blood. HIV attacks and destroys CD4 cells, weakening the immune system and leading to AIDS. AIDS is diagnosed when someone with HIV gets an opportunistic infection due to a severely weakened immune system with a CD4 count below 200. Common symptoms of HIV include fatigue, fever, and swollen lymph nodes.
This document discusses HIV and AIDS. It defines HIV as a virus and AIDS as a medical condition that can develop from HIV infection over time without treatment. It describes the causes and transmission of HIV, including through unprotected sex, blood transmission, and from mother to child during pregnancy or birth. The document outlines the symptoms of early HIV infection, asymptomatic HIV, and late-stage HIV/AIDS. It also discusses diagnosis of HIV through blood tests, treatments to slow the virus, and prevention methods.
Food hygiene and legislation in Pakistan aims to protect consumers from contaminated or unsafe food. The key laws include the Pure Food Ordinance which regulates food production and prohibits adulterants. The Cantonment Pure Food Act has similar provisions for military areas. The Hotels and Restaurants Act regulates hygienic food preparation and service in establishments. Proper cleaning and sanitation of surfaces and utensils helps prevent food poisoning. Current food safety oversight involves both federal import standards and provincial production standards and enforcement.
This document summarizes the immune response to HIV infection. It discusses how CD4 T-cells, cytotoxic T-cells, B-cells, and antigen presenting cells respond to HIV. Cytotoxic T-cells target many HIV proteins but often cannot eliminate the virus due to epitope escape, exhaustion, or suboptimal responses. Antibody responses have difficulty neutralizing HIV due to properties of the gp120 and gp41 envelope proteins. The immune response ultimately fails to clear HIV because the virus can integrate into genes, mutate, and impair antigen presenting cell function.
The document summarizes key points about the T-cell antigen receptor complex:
1) The T-cell receptor (TCR) is highly variable between individuals due to small changes in charge and shape at its ends, which allows it to recognize a diverse range of peptide antigens bound to MHC molecules.
2) TCR diversity is generated through combinatorial and junctional mechanisms similar to immunoglobulin genes, including the use of multiple variable, diversity and joining gene segments.
3) Unlike antibodies, TCRs do not undergo somatic mutation, which helps prevent autoimmunity by ensuring TCRs maintain recognition of peptide-MHC complexes.
T-Cell Activation
âĸ Concept of immune response
âĸ T cell-mediated immune response
âĸ B cell-mediated immune response
I. Concept of immune response
âĸ A collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign substances in an individual mediated by the cells and molecules in the immune system.
II. T cell-mediated immune response
âĸ Cell-mediated immunity is the arm of the adaptive immune response whose role is to combat infection of intracellular pathogens, such as intracellular bacteria (mycobacteria, listeria monocytogens), viruses, protozoa, etc.
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
âĸ Major Histocompatibility Complex
â Cluster of genes found in all mammals
â Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
â Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
âĸ MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
âĸ In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
â Referred to as HLA complex
âĸ In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
â Referred to as H-2 complex
âĸ Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
â Class I MHC genes
âĸ Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
âĸ Major function to present processed Ags to TC
â Class II MHC genes
âĸ Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
âĸ Major function to present processed Ags to TH
â Class III MHC genes
âĸ Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
Antigen Processing and Presentation MID
Antigens and âforeignnessâ
âĸ Antigens (or, more properly, immunogens) have a series of features which confer immunogenicity.
âĸ One of these features is âforeignness.â
âĸ So, we can infer that â most often â antigens â ultimately â originate externally.
âĸ (There are exceptions, of course. Some cells become transformed by disease [e. g., cancer] or by aging. In such instances, the antigens have an internal origin.)
This document discusses various methods for food preservation in warm climates. It describes creating an evaporative cooler using terra cotta pots to keep food fresh. It also discusses reducing the four enemies of food storage - light, heat, oxygen, and moisture. Methods covered include dehydrating and vacuum sealing food, canning in mason jars or mylar bags with oxygen absorbers, and freezing, though freezing has drawbacks of requiring electricity and refrigeration. With proper storage reducing oxygen, moisture and light, food can typically be preserved for 3-5 years even in warm climates.
Extinction of a particular animal or plant species occurs when there are no more individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world - the species has died out. This is a natural part of evolution. But sometimes extinctions happen at a much faster rate than usual. Natural Causes of Extinction.
Difference between In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation
Conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources helps protect, maintain and recover endangered animal and plant species. There are mainly two strategies for the conservation of wildlife: In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation. Although, both the strategies aim to maintain and recover endangered species, they are different from each other. Let us see how they differ from each other!
Evolution Of Bacteria
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago. Bacteria were widespread on Earth at least since the latter part of the Paleoproterozoic, roughly 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as a result of the action of the cyanobacteria. Bacteria have thus had plenty of time to adapt to their environments and to have given rise to numerous descendant forms.
Impact of Environment on Loss of Genetic Diversity and Speciation
Genetic variation describes naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same species. This variation permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing environmental circumstances. Consequently, genetic variation is often considered an advantage, as it is a form of preparation for the unexpected. But how does genetic variation increase or decrease? And what effect do fluctuations in genetic variation have on populations over time?
GENE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Subtle differences in one personâs genes can cause them to respond differently to the same environmental exposure as another person. As a result, some people may develop a disease after being exposed to something in the environment while others may not.
As scientists learn more about the connection between genes and the environment, they pursue new approaches for preventing and treating disease that consider individual genetic codes.
How to store food in hot
The Good News
To maximize benefit of preservation, keep your food as fresh as possible for as long as possible. You can do this, even in the heat, by creating a âcoolerâ made from two basic terra cotta pots, one larger than the other. Put the smaller pot in the larger one, fill the gap with sand, and saturate the sand with water. Then cover it with a cloth. To add additional insulation from the heat, bury the pot up to its rim. The evaporation of moisture from the wet sand will cool the air around the food and help keep it fresh.
What is IUPAC naming?
In order to give compounds a name, certain rules must be followed. When naming organic compounds, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature (naming scheme) is used. This is to give consistency to the names. It also enables every compound to have a unique name, which is not possible with the common names used (for example in industry). We will first look at some of the steps that need to be followed when naming a compound, and then try to apply these rules to some specific examples.
IUPAC Nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
Hybridization describes the bonding atoms from an atom's point of view. For a tetrahedral coordinated carbon (e.g. methane CH4), the carbon should have 4 orbitals with the correct symmetry to bond to the 4 hydrogen atoms.
INTRODUCTION:
Hybrid Orbitals
Developed by Linus Pauling, the concept of hybrid orbitals was a theory created to explain the structures of molecules in space. The theory consists of combining atomic orbitals (ex: s,p,d,f) into new hybrid orbitals (ex: sp, sp2, sp3).
1. Why Firefly give light during night?
2. Why atomic mass and Atomic numbers are given to elements ?
3. Why elements have been characterized and classified into different groups?
4. What is the transition of elements and what they play their role in elements stability?
Ali Hyder presented on the oxygen cycle to the Microbiology and Biotechnology department. The presentation covered definitions of key terms like biogeochemical cycles and oxygen. It explained that oxygen is produced primarily through photosynthesis by plants and some through interactions with sunlight and water vapor. Oxygen gets used up through respiration by animals and organisms, decomposition of dead matter, rusting of metals, and combustion. The oxygen cycle occurs as plants produce oxygen through photosynthesis during the day, which is then used by organisms for respiration and releases carbon dioxide, which plants then use again at night through photosynthesis, repeating the cycle.
The Billion Trees Tsunami Afforestation Project in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa aims to rehabilitate forests and increase the forest resource base. It establishes central and private nurseries to grow over 500 million saplings, which are planted on 10,000 hectares of land. The project also focuses on protecting newly planted forests by training and hiring local communities as forest guards. Overall, the project has planted over 872 million seedlings across the province by 2017, with a high survival rate of 88.75%.
Can Traditional Chinese Medicine Treat Blocked Fallopian Tubes.pptxFFragrant
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There are many traditional Chinese medicine therapies to treat blocked fallopian tubes. And herbal medicine Fuyan Pill is one of the more effective choices.
Dr. Tan's Balance Method.pdf (From Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin)GeorgeKieling1
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Home
Organization
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin
About AOMA: The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin offers a masters-level graduate program in acupuncture and Oriental medicine, preparing its students for careers as skilled, professional practitioners. AOMA is known for its internationally recognized faculty, award-winning student clinical internship program, and herbal medicine program. Since its founding in 1993, AOMA has grown rapidly in size and reputation, drawing students from around the nation and faculty from around the world. AOMA also conducts more than 20,000 patient visits annually in its student and professional clinics. AOMA collaborates with Western healthcare institutions including the Seton Family of Hospitals, and gives back to the community through partnerships with nonprofit organizations and by providing free and reduced price treatments to people who cannot afford them. The Academy of Oriental Medicine at Austin is located at 2700 West Anderson Lane. AOMA also serves patients and retail customers at its south Austin location, 4701 West Gate Blvd. For more information see www.aoma.edu or call 512-492-303434.
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14...Donc Test
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TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
Storyboard on Acne-Innovative Learning-M. pharm. (2nd sem.) CosmeticsMuskanShingari
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Acne is a common skin condition that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with oil and dead skin cells. It typically manifests as pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, often on the face, chest, shoulders, or back. Acne can range from mild to severe and may cause emotional distress and scarring in some cases.
**Causes:**
1. **Excess Oil Production:** Hormonal changes during adolescence or certain times in adulthood can increase sebum (oil) production, leading to clogged pores.
2. **Clogged Pores:** When dead skin cells and oil block hair follicles, bacteria (usually Propionibacterium acnes) can thrive, causing inflammation and acne lesions.
3. **Hormonal Factors:** Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as during puberty, menstrual cycles, pregnancy, or certain medical conditions, can contribute to acne.
4. **Genetics:** A family history of acne can increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
**Types of Acne:**
- **Whiteheads:** Closed plugged pores.
- **Blackheads:** Open plugged pores with a dark surface.
- **Papules:** Small red, tender bumps.
- **Pustules:** Pimples with pus at their tips.
- **Nodules:** Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface.
- **Cysts:** Painful, pus-filled lumps beneath the surface that can cause scarring.
**Treatment:**
Treatment depends on the severity and type of acne but may include:
- **Topical Treatments:** Such as benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, or retinoids to reduce bacteria and unclog pores.
- **Oral Medications:** Antibiotics or oral contraceptives for hormonal acne.
- **Procedures:** Such as chemical peels, extraction of comedones, or light therapy for more severe cases.
**Prevention and Management:**
- **Cleanse:** Regularly wash skin with a gentle cleanser.
- **Moisturize:** Use non-comedogenic moisturizers to keep skin hydrated without clogging pores.
- **Avoid Irritants:** Such as harsh cosmetics or excessive scrubbing.
- **Sun Protection:** Use sunscreen to prevent exacerbation of acne scars and inflammation.
Acne treatment can take time, and consistency in skincare routines and treatments is crucial. Consulting a dermatologist can help tailor a treatment plan that suits individual needs and reduces the risk of scarring or long-term skin damage.
Receptor Discordance in Breast Carcinoma During the Course of Life
Definition:
Receptor discordance refers to changes in the status of hormone receptors (estrogen receptor ERÎą, progesterone receptor PgR, and HER2) in breast cancer tumors over time or between primary and metastatic sites.
Causes:
Tumor Evolution:
Genetic and epigenetic changes during tumor progression can lead to alterations in receptor status.
Treatment Effects:
Therapies, especially endocrine and targeted therapies, can selectively pressure tumor cells, causing shifts in receptor expression.
Heterogeneity:
Inherent heterogeneity within the tumor can result in subpopulations of cells with different receptor statuses.
Impact on Treatment:
Therapeutic Resistance:
Loss of ERÎą or PgR can lead to resistance to endocrine therapies.
HER2 discordance affects the efficacy of HER2-targeted treatments.
Treatment Adjustment:
Regular reassessment of receptor status may be necessary to adjust treatment strategies appropriately.
Clinical Implications:
Prognosis:
Receptor discordance is often associated with a poorer prognosis.
Biopsies:
Obtaining biopsies from metastatic sites is crucial for accurate receptor status assessment and effective treatment planning.
Monitoring:
Continuous monitoring of receptor status throughout the disease course can guide personalized therapy adjustments.
Understanding and managing receptor discordance is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes and improving the prognosis for breast cancer patients.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
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GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
Congestive Heart failure is caused by low cardiac output and high sympathetic discharge. Diuretics reduce preload, ACE inhibitors lower afterload, beta blockers reduce sympathetic activity, and digitalis has inotropic effects. Newer medications target vasodilation and myosin activation to improve heart efficiency while lowering energy requirements. Combination therapy, following an assessment of cardiac function and volume status, is the most effective strategy to heart failure care.
1. Page 1 of 17
HIV and Its Treatment
Table of Contents
1. HIV/AIDS:
2. The Basics
3. Testing for HIV
4. Seeing an HIV HealthCare Provider
5. When to Start Anti-HIVMedications
6. RecommendedHIVTreatment Regimens
7. FDA-ApprovedAnti-HIVMedications
8. Treatment Adherence
9. Following an HIV Treatment Regimen
10.Is My Treatment RegimenWorking?
11.Changing an HIV Treatment Regimen
12.HIV Coinfections
13. Preventing Transmissionof HIV
īļWhat is HIV/AIDS?
The human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, is the virus that causes HIV infection. During HIV
infection, the virus attacks and destroys the infection-fighting CD4 cells of the bodyâs immune
system. Loss of CD4 cells makes it difficult for the immune system to fight infections. Acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is the most advanced stage of HIV infection.
ī How is HIV transmitted?
HIV is transmitted (spread) through the blood, semen, genital fluids, or breast milk of a person
infected with HIV. Having unprotected sex or sharing drug injection equipment (such as needles
and syringes) with a person infected with HIV are the most common ways HIV is transmitted.
You canât get HIV by shaking hands, hugging, or closedmouth kissing with a person who is
infected with HIV. And you canât get HIV from contact with objects such as toilet seats,
doorknobs, dishes, or drinking glasses used by a person infected with HIV.
2. Page 2 of 17
Even though it takes many years for symptoms of HIV to develop, a person infected with HIV
can spread the virus at any stage of HIV infection. Detecting HIV early after infection and
starting treatment with anti-HIV medications before symptoms of HIV develop can help people
with HIV live longer, healthier lives. Treatment can also reduce the risk of transmission of HIV.
ī What is the treatment for HIV?
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the recommended treatment for HIV infection. ART involves
taking a combination (regimen) of three or more anti-HIV medications daily. ART prevents HIV
from multiplying and destroying infection-fighting CD4 cells. This helps the body fight off life-
threatening infections and cancer. ART canât cure HIV, but anti-HIV medications help people
infected with HIV live longer, healthier lives.
ī Can treatment prevent HIV from advancing to AIDS?
Yes. Treatment with anti-HIV medications prevents HIV from multiplying and destroying the
immune system. This helps the body fight off life-threatening infections and cancers and
prevents HIV from advancing to AIDS. defining condition signals that a personâs HIV infection
has advanced to AIDS.)
ī What illnesses are considered AIDS-defining conditions?
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) considers several illnesses AIDS-defining
conditions.
īļTesting for HIV
ī I may have beenexposedtoHIV. What should I do?
Get tested. The only way to know if youâre infected with the virus is to get an HIV test. Soon
after infection with HIV, a person may have flu-like symptoms. But HIV infection isnât diagnosed
on the basis of symptoms. Getting tested is the only way to know if youâre infected with HIV.
ī What is the most common HIV test?
The most common HIV test is the HIV antibody test. HIV antibodies are a type of protein the
body produces in response to HIV infection. The HIV antibody test checks for HIV antibodies in a
personâs blood, urine, or fluids from the mouth.
Generally it takes the body about 3 months from the time of infection to produce enough
antibodies to be detected by an HIV antibody test. (For some people, it can take up to 6
months.) The time period between infection and the appearance of detectable HIV antibodies is
3. Page 3 of 17
called the window period. Because HIV antibodies are not detectable yet, the HIV antibody test
isnât useful during the window period.
ī What HIV test is usedduring the window period?
The plasma HIV RNA test (also called a viral load test) can detect HIV in a personâs blood within
9 days of infection, before the body develops detectable HIV antibodies. The plasma HIV RNA
test is recommended when recent infection is very likelyâfor example, soon after a person has
had unprotected sex with a partner infected with HIV.
Detecting HIV at the earliest stage of infection lets people take steps right away to prevent
transmission of HIV. (See the Preventing Transmission of HIV fact sheet.) This is important
because immediately after infection the amount of HIV in the body is very high, increasing the
risk of transmission of HIV. Starting treatment at this earliest stage of infection also can be
considered.
ī What does it mean to test HIVpositive?
A diagnosis of HIV is made on the basis of positive results from two HIV tests. The first test can
be either an HIV antibody test (using blood, urine, or fluids from the mouth) or a plasma HIV
RNA test (using blood). The second test always using blood) is a different type of antibody test
called a Western blot test. A positive Western blot test confirms that a person has HIV.
ī How long does it take to get HIV test results?
Results of the first antibody test are generally available within a few days. (Rapid HIV antibody
tests can produce results within an hour.) Results of the plasma HIV RNA test and Western blot
are available in a few days to a few weeks.
ī If I test HIV positive now, will I always test HIV positive?
Yes. Thereâs no cure for HIV at this time. Because you will always be infected with the virus,
you will always test HIV positive. But treatment with anti-HIV medications can help you live a
longer, healthier life.
ī If a pregnant woman tests positive for HIV, will her baby be born with HIV?
In the United States and Europe, fewer than 2 babies in 100 born to mothers infected with HIV
are infected with the virus. This is because anti-HIV medications given to women infected with
HIV during pregnancy and delivery and to their babies after birth help prevent mother-to-child
transmission of HIV. Another reason is that, in the United States and Europe, mothers infected
4. Page 4 of 17
with HIV do not breastfeed their babies. (For more information, see the HIV and Pregnancy fact
sheet series.)
ī Where can I find information on HIV testing in my state?
Many hospitals, medical clinics, and community organizations offer HIV testing. To find an HIV
testing site near you, contact AIDSinfo for the number of your state AIDS hotline or visit
http://www.hivtest.org/. You can also find information on testing locations on your state health
department website.
īļSeeing an HIV Health Care Provider:
ī I just tested HIV positive. What should I look for in a health care provider?
Look for a health care provider who has experience treating HIV and AIDS. You may want to see
a specialist in HIV. You need a health care provider with whom you feel comfortable. You will be
working closely with your health care provider to make many decisions regarding your
treatment.
ī What can I expect at my first healthcare provider visit?
Your health care provider will ask you about your health and lifestyle, do a physical exam, and
order blood tests. Your health care provider will also discuss what it means to have HIV and
how it can affect your life. Your first visit is a good time to ask your health care provider
questions.
ī What questions shouldI ask my healthcare provider?
Ask your health care provider about:
īˇ The benefits and risks of HIV treatment .
īˇ How HIV treatment can affect your lifestyle .
īˇ Lab tests used to monitor HIV infection .
īˇ How to avoid getting other infections .
īˇ How to avoid spreading HIV to another person
ī What tests will my healthcare provider order?
You will have three very important blood tests at your first medical appointment: a CD4 count,
a viral load test, and drug-resistance testing.
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īˇ A CD4 count is the number of CD4 cells in a sample of blood. CD4 cells are infection-
fighting cells of the bodyâs immune system. HIV destroys CD4 cells, making it hard for
the body to fight off infections. A CD4 count measures how well the immune systemis
working. A goal of HIV treatment is to prevent HIV from destroying CD4 cells.
īˇ A viral load test measures the amount of HIV in a sample of blood. The test indicates
how much virus is in the blood (viral load). A goal of HIV treatment is to keep a personâs
viral load so low that the virus canât be detected by a viral load test.
īˇ Drug-resistance testing identifies which, if any, anti-HIV medications will not be effective
against a personâs strain of HIV.
Your health care provider may also order other tests, such as a blood cell count, kidney and
liver function tests, and tests for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and other diseases.
ī When will I beginHIV treatment?
Starting HIV treatment is a big step. When to begin treatment depends on your health, your
test results, and your readiness to take a combination of anti-HIV medications (a regimen)
every day. Once you begin taking anti-HIV medications, you will probably need to take them for
the rest of your life.
Your health care provider will help you decide if you are ready to start treatment. (See the
When to Start Anti-HIV Medications fact sheet.) Once you start treatment, your health care
provider will help you find ways to stick to your treatment regimen. (See the Treatment
Adherence and Following an HIV Treatment Regimen fact sheets.)
ī What happens if I donât start treatment right away?
If you donât start treatment right away, you should have a CD4 count and viral load test once
every 3 to 6 months. Your health care provider will use the test results to monitor your
infection and help you decide when to start treatment.
īļWhen to Start Anti-HIV Medications
ī I just testedHIVpositive. Whenwill I start treatment?
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is recommended for all people infected with HIV. ART involves
taking a combination of anti-HIV medications (a regimen) every day. ART is a lifelong treatment.
When to start anti-HIV medications (also called antiretrovirals) is a decision you will make with
your health care provider. You and your health care provider will consider the following factors:
īˇ How well your immune systemis working (CD4 count)
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īˇ The amount of HIV in your blood (viral load)
īˇ Whether you have an HIV-related illness or AIDS
īˇ Whether youâre pregnant
īˇ Your ability and willingness to commit to lifelong treatment
ī Can anti-HIVmedications really help?
Yes. Anti-HIV medications canât cure HIV, but treatment can improve your quality of life and
help you live longer. HIV attacks and destroys the infection-fighting CD4 cells of the bodyâs
immune system. Loss of CD4 cells makes it hard for the body to fight infection. Anti-HIV
medications can prevent HIV from multiplying. This reduces the amount of HIV in the body,
giving the immune systema chance to recover and produce more infection-fighting CD4 cells.
Once a person starts taking anti-HIV medications, an increase in CD4 cells is a sign that the
immune systemis recovering.
ī How long does it take for treatment towork?
Once you start treatmentâand take your anti-HIV medications exactly as directedâitâs
possible to have an undetectable viral load within 3 to 6 months. An undetectable viral load
means that the level of HIV in your blood is too low to be detected by a viral load test. You
arenât cured. There is still some HIV in your body. But an undetectable viral load indicates that
your anti-HIV medications are working effectively to keep you healthier and reduce your risk of
transmitting HIV.
ī What treatment is right for me?
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) provides guidelines on using anti-HIV
medications to treat HIV infection. The HHS guidelines recommend starting treatment with a
regimen of three or more anti-HIV medications from at least two different drug classes. (See
the FDA-Approved Anti-HIV Medications fact sheet.) The HHS guidelines list preferred ART
regimens. (See the Recommended HIV Treatment Regimens fact sheet.) Because peopleâs
needs vary, the preferred regimens may not be right for everyone. You and your health care
provider will consider your individual needs to select the most effective regimen for you.
īļ Recommended HIV Treatment Regimens
ī What is the treatment for HIV?
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the recommended treatment for HIV. ART involves taking a
combination of anti-HIV medications (a regimen) every day. Anti-HIV medications (also called
antiretrovirals) are grouped into six drug classes according to how they fight HIV. The six
classes are non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), nucleoside reverse
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transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), protease inhibitors (PIs), fusion inhibitors, CCR5 antagonists,
and integrase inhibitors.
Recommended HIV treatment regimens include three or more anti-HIV medications from at
least two different drug classes. Taking a combination of anti-HIV medications from different
classes is the most effective way to control the virus. Some anti-HIV medications are available in
combination (two or more medications in one pill).
Anti-HIV medications are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). See the
FDA-Approved Anti-HIV Medications fact sheet for a complete list of medications used in HIV
treatment regimens in the United States.
ī How will I know which anti-HIVmedications totake?
The best combination of anti-HIV medications for you depends on your individual needs.
Factors that you and your health care provider will consider when selecting your HIV regimen
include:
Other diseases or conditions you may have
īˇ Possible side effects of anti-HIV medications
īˇ The risk of interactions between anti-HIV medications and other medications you take
īˇ Results of drug-resistance testing and other tests
īˇ Convenience of the regimen. (For example, a regimen that involves taking only one pill a
day is convenient to follow.)
īˇ Any personal issues that can make following a regimen difficult (such as depression or
alcohol or drug abuse)
ī What are the recommendedregimens for people taking anti-HIV
medications for the first time?
After considering your individual needs, you and your health care provider may select one of
the following regimens recommended for people taking anti-HIV medications for the first time:
īˇ Atripla (a combination of three anti-HIV medications in one pill)
īˇ Reyataz + Norvir + Truvada (Truvada is a combination of two anti-HIV medications in
one pill.)
īˇ Prezista + Norvir + Truvada
īˇ Isentress + Truvada
Women who are planning on becoming pregnant or are in the first trimester of pregnancy
should not use Atripla or Sustiva. (Sustiva, which is one of the medications in Atripla, may cause
birth defects that develop during the first few months of pregnancy.) If you are pregnant or
expect to become pregnant soon, talk to your health care provider about the benefits and risks
of taking anti-HIV medications. (See the HIV and Pregnancy fact sheet series for information on
HIV treatment regimens for pregnant women.)
8. Page 8 of 17
Because individual needs vary, these recommended HIV treatment regimens may not be right
for everyone. If none of the preferred regimens is right for you, your health care provider will
help you select an alternative regimen based on your needs.
ī Will I have side effects fromthe anti-HIVmedications inmy regimen?
Anti-HIV medications can cause side effects. Side effects vary depending on the anti-HIV
medication. And people taking the same medication may not have the same side effects. Before
starting treatment, discuss possible side effects with your health care provider or pharmacist.
Most side effects from anti-HIV medications are manageable. However, side effects that
become unbearable or life threatening call for a change in medications. Side effects that may
seem minor, such as fever, nausea, fatigue, or rash, can indicate serious problems. Once you
start treatment, always discuss any side effects from your anti-HIV medications with your
health care provider.
Interactions between anti-HIV medications and other medications can increase the risk of side
effects. Drug interactions can also reduce the effectiveness of anti-HIV medications. (Anti-HIV
medications can also have the same effect on other medications.) Always tell your health care
provider about other medications you take, including when you switch or stop taking a
medication.
īļ FDA-ApprovedAnti-HIVMedications
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the recommended treatment for HIV infection. ART involves
taking a combination of anti-HIV medications (a regimen) daily. A regimen contains three or
more anti-HIV medications from at least two different drug classes. Anti-HIV medications
prevent HIV from multiplying in the body, which helps people infected with HIV live longer,
healthier lives. ART may reduce the risk of transmission of HIV but anti-HIV medications canât
cure HIV/AIDS. The following table lists anti-HIV medications approved by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of HIV in the United States. The medications are
presented by drug class and identified by generic name/acronym and brand name.
īļ Treatment Adherence
ī What is treatment adherence?
Treatment adherence means following your treatment regimen closely every dayâtaking
the correct dose of each anti-HIV medication at the correct time and exactly as prescribed.
Adherence is very important for successful HIV treatment.
ī Why is adherence important?
Adherence affects HIV treatment in two ways:
īˇ Close adherence to an HIV treatment regimen allows anti-HIV medications to work
effectively to reduce the amount of HIV in the body. Skipping medications, even
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occasionally, gives HIV the chance to multiply rapidly. Preventing the virus from
multiplying is the best way to protect your health.
īˇ Close adherence to an HIV treatment regimen also helps prevent drug resistance. Drug
resistance develops when the virus mutates (changes form), becoming âresistantâ to
certain anti-HIV medications. One or more anti-HIV medications in a treatment regimen
can become ineffective as a result of drug resistance.
Skipping medications makes it easier for drug resistance to develop. HIV can become resistant
to the anti-HIV medications in a personâs current regimen or to other, similar anti-HIV
medications not yet taken, limiting options for successful HIV treatment. And drug-resistant
strains of HIV can be transmitted to others, too.
There are many different anti-HIV medications and treatment regimens, but studies show that
a personâs first regimen offers the best chance for long-term treatment success. And good
adherence from the start is key to successful treatment.
ī Why is treatment adherence sometimesdifficult?
Adhering to an HIV treatment regimen can be difficult for several reasons. Some treatment
regimens involve taking several pills every dayâwith or without food, or before or after
other medications. Other factors that can make treatment adherence difficult include:
īˇ Difficulty taking medications (such as trouble swallowing pills)
īˇ Side effects from medications (for example, nausea or diarrhea)
īˇ A busy schedule, shift work, or travel away from home that makes it easy to forget to
take pills
īˇ Being sick or depressed
īˇ Alcohol or drug abuse
ī What can I do toadhere to my HIV treatment regimen?
Before you start treatment, be certain youâre committed to taking anti-HIV medications
every day as directed. Talk to your health care provider about any issues that can make
adherence difficult, including:
īˇ Possible side effects from the anti-HIV medications in your regimen
īˇ How other medications you take may interact with your anti-HIV medications
īˇ Your schedule at home and at work
īˇ Any personal issues such as depression or alcohol or drug abuse
īˇ Lack of health insurance to pay for anti-HIV medications
Understanding issues that can make adherence difficult will help you and your health care
provider select the best regimen for you. Some people find that adhering to an HIV treatment
regimen becomes more difficult over time. So, every time you see your health care provider,
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make it a point to talk about adherence. (See the Following an HIV Treatment Regimen fact
sheet for tips on adherence.)
īļ Following an HIV Treatment Regimen
How can I prepare for adherence before I start HIV treatment?
Preparing for adherence before you start taking anti-HIV medications is the first step to
treatment success. Planning ahead will help you follow your treatment regimen once you start
treatment.
Begin by talking to your health care provider. Make sure you understand why youâre starting
HIV treatment and why treatment adherence is important. Discuss these important details
about your treatment regimen:
īˇ Each anti-HIV medication in your regimen
īˇ The dose (amount) of each anti-HIV medication in your regimen.
īˇ How many pills in each dose
īˇ When to take each medication
How to take each medicationâwith or without food
Possible side effects from each medication, including serious side effects
How to store your medications
Talk to your health care provider about other medications you take and their possible side
effects. Your health care provider will tell you about potential interactions between the anti-
HIV medications in your regimen and the other medications you take.
Tell your health care provider if you have any personal issues, such as depression or alcohol or
drug abuse, that can make adherence difficult. If needed, your health care provider can
recommend resources to help you address these issues before you start treatment.
How can I maintain adherence after I start treatment?
Consider one or more of the following strategies to help you adhere to your regimen:
īˇ Use a 7-day pill box. Once a week, fill the pill box with your medications for the entire
week.
īˇ Take your medications at the same time every day.
īˇ Use a timer, an alarm clock, or your cell phone alarm to remind you to take your
medications.
īˇ Ask your family members, friends, or coworkers to remind you to take your medications.
īˇ Keep your medications nearby. Keep a backup supply of medications at work or in your
purse or briefcase.
īˇ Plan ahead for changes in your daily routine, including weekends and holidays. If youâre
going away, pack enough medications to last the entire trip.
īˇ Use a medication diary to stay on track. Write down the name of each medication;
include the dose, number of pills to take, and when to take them. Check off each
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medication as you take it. Reviewing your diary will help you identify the times youâre
most likely to skip medications.
īˇ Keep all your medical appointments. Write down the date and time of heath care
provider visits on your calendar or daily schedule. If you run low on medications before
your next visit, call your health care provider to renew your prescriptions.
īˇ Get additional tips on adherence by joining a support group for people living with HIV.
ī What shouldI do if I forget totake my medications?
Unless your health care provider tells you otherwise, take a medication you missed as soon as
you realize you skipped it. But if itâs almost time for the next dose of the medication, donât
take the missed dose and just continue on your regular medication schedule. Donât take a
double dose of a medication to make up for a missed dose.
ī What shouldI do if I have problems adhering to my treatment regimen?
Tell your health care provider that youâre having difficulty following your regimen. Together
you can identify the reasons why youâre skipping medications.
Tell your health care provider about any side effects from the medications in your regimen. Side
effects are a major reason treatment adherence can be difficult. A regimen that involves taking
many pills at many times during the day can also make adherence difficult.
īļ Is My Treatment Regimen Working?
ī How will I know if my HIV treatment regimenis working?
Your health care provider will use two important blood tests to monitor your HIV treatment:
CD4 count and viral load test. The results of the tests will help your health care provider
determine if the anti-HIV medications in your treatment regimen are working.
ī What is a CD4 count?
HIV attacks the immune system, destroying the systemâs infection-fighting CD4 cells.
Keeping the immune systemhealthy is an important goal of HIV treatment.
The CD4 count measures the number of CD4 cells in a sample of blood. The CD4 count of a
healthy person ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells/mm
3
. An HIV-infected person with a CD4 count
of less than 200 cells/mm
3
has AIDS.
Because a falling CD4 count is a sign that HIV is damaging the immune system, the test is used
to monitor HIV infection. Once treatment is started, the CD4 count is also used to monitor the
effectiveness of anti-HIV medications.
Once you start treatment, you should have a CD4 count once every 3 to 4 months. An
increasing CD4 count is a sign that the immune system is recovering. If your regimen is working
well, you need a CD4 count only once every 6 to 12 months.
ī What is a viral load test?
12. Page 12 of 17
Preventing HIV from multiplying is another important goal of HIV treatment. The viral load test
measures the amount of HIV in the blood. Itâs the best measure of how well anti-HIV
medications are controlling the virus.
The best sign that treatment is working is reaching and maintaining an undetectable viral
load. An undetectable viral load doesnât mean that youâre cured. It means that the amount
of HIV in your blood is too low to be detected by the viral load test.
Once you start treatment, you should have a viral load test within 2 to 8 weeks and then once
every 4 to 8 weeks until your viral load is undetectable. You need the test done only every 3 to
4 months once your viral load is undetectable. If you have an undetectable viral load for more
than 2 or 3 years, your health care provider may recommend viral load testing once every 6
months.
ī What causes treatment tofail?
HIV treatment can fail if anti-HIV medications are unable to control the virus or protect the
health of the immune system.
Sometimes treatment fails because of things you canât control, such as unmanageable side
effects from anti-HIV medications, interactions between anti-HIV medications and other
medications you take, or the bodyâs poor absorption of anti-HIV medications.
Treatment can also fail because of drug resistance. Sometimes HIV changes form and
becomes resistant to (not affected by) the medications in a regimen.
It may be necessary to change medications to deal with these problems.
ī Can skipping medications cause treatment failure?
Poor treatment adherence is another reason HIV treatment can fail. Skipping medications
allows HIV to multiply, increasing a personâs viral load. To reach and maintain an undetectable
viral load, itâs important to closely follow your treatment regimen. Poor treatment adherence
can also give HIV a chance to change form, leading to drug resistance.
Sometimes working with your health care provider to improve adherence can prevent
treatment failure. For example, your health care provider can give you tips on how to manage
medication side effects that make adherence difficult. Or your health care provider can simplify
your regimen to make your medication schedule fit your busy lifestyle. (To learn more about
treatment adherence, see the Treatment Adherence and Following an HIV Treatment Regimen
fact sheets.)
ī What happens if my treatment fails?
If your treatment is failing, it may be time to adjust or change your regimen. But before making
any changes, your health care provider will consider:
īˇ Any side effects you had from your anti-HIV medications
īˇ How well your body absorbed the medications in your regimen
īˇ Your drug-resistance testing results
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īˇ How closely you followed your treatment regimen
All of this information will help you and your health care provider select a new, more effective
regimen. (See the Changing an HIV Treatment Regimen fact sheet.)
īļ Changing an HIV Treatment Regimen
Will my HIV treatment regimen ever change?
At some point, you may need to adjust or change your regimen. But before making any
changes, itâs important to understand why.
What are possible reasons for changing an HIV treatment regimen?
There are several reasons why a person may switch to another HIV regimen:
īˇ Side effects from anti-HIV medications Unpleasant side effects, such as fatigue, nausea,
and diarrhea, can make treatment adherence difficult. Side effects that become
unbearable or pose a serious threat to health call for a change in regimen.
īˇ Poor absorption of anti-HIV medications To work effectively, anti-HIV medications must
be absorbed by the body.
īˇ Drug interactions Drug interactions between anti-HIV medications in a regimen or
between anti-HIV medications and other medications a person is taking can increase the
risk of side effects. Drug interactions can also reduce the effectiveness of anti-HIV
medications. (Anti-HIV medications can also have the same effect on other
medications.)
īˇ Drug resistance Drug resistance occurs when HIV mutates (changes form), causing one
or more medications in a regimen to be ineffective.
īˇ Poor treatment adherence Skipping medications gives HIV the chance to multiply,
increasing a personâs viral load. Poor adherence also increases the risk of drug
resistance.
ī What are important things to consider whenselecting anewtreatment
regimen?
If you and your health care provider decide itâs time to switch your treatment regimen, you will
have many things to consider. For example, together you will review:
īˇ your medication history
īˇ any side effects from the anti-HIV medications you currently take or have taken in the
past
īˇ results of drug-resistance testing
In general, a new treatment regimen should include two or more medications from two or
more drug classes. If you are switching regimens, your new regimen may include anti-HIV
medications that you have never used before.
If you have already taken many of the FDA-approved anti-HIV medications, your health care
provider may recommend a new medication only available through a research study (clinical
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trial). To learn about participating in a research study, ask your health care provider or visit the
Clinical Trials section of the AIDSinfo website at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/clinicaltrials.
ī How can I give my newregimenthe best chance of success?
Before starting your new regimen, make a commitment to keep your medical appointments
and take your anti-HIV medications exactly as prescribed. Talk to your health care provider
about steps you can take to overcome any lifestyle or personal issues that can make
adherence difficult.
Be sure to ask your health care provider about possible side effects from your new anti-HIV
medications. Also discuss potential drug interactions between the medications in your regimen
and other medications, vitamins, nutritional supplements, and herbal products that you take or
plan to take.
īļ HIV Coinfections
ī What is a coinfection?
Coinfection means infection with more than one disease at the same time. Some coinfections
commonly seen in people infected with HIV include:
īˇ HIV/hepatitis B virus (HBV) coinfection
īˇ HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection
īˇ HIV/tuberculosis (TB) coinfection
People infected with HIV should be tested for HBV, HCV, and TB.
ī What are HBV and HCV?
HBV and HCV are two different viruses that both cause liver disease. They are also among the
most common causes of liver cancer. Some of the ways HBV, HCV, and HIV are spread are
similar.
HBV is spread through the blood, semen, or other body fluid of a person infected with HBV.
Having unprotected sex or sharing drug injection equipment (such as needles or syringes) with
a person infected with HBV are the main ways people get HBV. (To prevent HBV infection,
people infected with HIV receive the HBV vaccination.)
HCV is spread through the blood of a person infected with HCV. Sharing drug injection
equipment with a person infected with HCV is the main way people get HCV, but HCV can also
be transmitted during unprotected sex. (Before widespread screening of the blood supply
began in 1992, HCV was also commonly spread through blood transfusions and organ
transplants.)
Having unprotected sex or sharing drug needles are also ways people get HIV. That is why some
people become coinfected with HIV and HBV or HCV (or both) at the same time.
īļ What is TB?
15. Page 15 of 17
TB is a disease caused by germs that spread through the air when a person with active TB
coughs, sneezes, or talks. TB usually affects the lungs.
There are two forms of TB: latent TB infection and TB disease. Latent TB infection is the
inactive form of TB. The TB germs in the body are âsleepingâ and donât make the person sick.
A person with latent TB infection canât spread TB to others.
Without treatment, latent TB infection can advance to TB disease, especially in people with
weakened immune systems. The TB germs in the body multiply and become active, making the
person sick. A person with TB disease of the lungs can spread TB to others.
Because HIV weakens the immune system, latent TB infection is more likely to advance to TB
disease in a person infected with HIV. In a person infected with HIV, TB disease is considered
an AIDS-defining condition, and TB treatment should be started immediately.
ī Are coinfections more seriousinpeople infectedwithHIV?
Yes. Coinfections can become serious more rapidly in people infected with HIV than in people
who are not infected with the virus.
HBV and HCV both lead to liver damage more quickly in people infected with HIV. People co-
infected with HBV or HCV also have a higher risk of developing liver damage from anti-HIV
medications.
TB disease is more likely to spread beyond the lungs in people infected with HIV than in
people who do not have HIV.
ī Can coinfections be treated?
Yes, but the effectiveness of treatment depends on the coinfection.
īˇ TB treatment can cure TB disease or prevent latent TB infection from advancing to TB
disease.
īˇ There is no cure for HBV, but treatment can slow down HBV infection.
īˇ Treatment for HCV is generally less effective than treatment for TB or HBV. However,
research on new medications that are more effective against HCV is underway.
ī Are HIV and coinfections treatedat the same time?
Yes, but what medications to take and when to start them depend on the coinfection. Some
anti-HIV medications are effective against both HIV and HBV. Treatment for HCV or TB
involves taking other medications in addition to anti-HIV medications.
Health care providers closely watch people receiving treatment for coinfections for any side
effects from anti-HIV medications or medications used to treat coinfections. They also watch
for drug interactions between the medications. Changing medications can be helpful to avoid
side effects or drug interactions.
Talk to your health care provider if you have questions about HIV and coinfections.
īļ Preventing Transmission of HIV
16. Page 16 of 17
How is HIV transmitted?
HIV is transmitted (spread) through the blood, semen, genital fluids, or breast milk of a
person infected with HIV. The spread of the virus is called transmission of HIV.
Having unprotected sex or sharing drug injection equipment (such as needles and syringes)
with a person infected with HIV are the most common ways HIV is transmitted.
Having a sexually transmitted disease (STD) can increase a person's risk of becoming infected
with HIV during sex. The risk of spreading HIV during sex is also more likely if the partner
infected with HIV also has another STD.
Women infected with HIV can transmit the virus to their babies during pregnancy or childbirth
or by breastfeeding. If you are a woman infected with HIV, talk to your health care provider
about ways to prevent pregnancy. If you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant, ask your
health care provider how you can protect your baby from HIV. (See the HIV and Pregnancy fact
sheets.)
ī I am taking anti-HIVmedications and my viral load is undetectable. CanI
still infect another personwithHIV?
Your anti-HIV medications are doing a good job of controlling your infection. The amount of HIV
in your blood is so low that a viral load test canât detect the virus. But having an undetectable
viral load doesnât mean youâre cured. You still have HIV. Although having an undetectable viral
load greatly reduces the risk of HIV transmission, you can still infect another person with the
virus.
ī How can I prevent transmitting HIV?
To prevent infecting another person with HIV:
īˇ Use a condom every time you have sex.
īˇ If you inject drugs, don't share your needles or syringes.
īˇ Donât share your razor, toothbrush, or other items that may have your blood on them.
īˇ Take your anti-HIV medications according to your health care providerâs directions.
īˇ If you are a mother infected with HIV, donât breastfeed your baby.
Talk to your health care provider about how HIV is transmitted and ways to prevent spreading
the virus. At each visit, discuss any high-risk behaviors (such as having unprotected sex or
sharing drug injection equipment). Ask your health provider about testing for other STDsâfor
you and your partner.
Talking about high-risk behaviors can be difficult. But itâs important to be honest with your
health care provider about any high-risk activities. Your health care provider can help you take
steps to reduce your chances of transmitting HIV to another person.
Can I put my HIV-infected partner at risk?
Even if your partner is also infected with HIV, itâs important to use condoms and not share drug
injection equipement. You and your partner may have different strains of the virus. Your
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partnerâs HIV could act differently in your body or cause the anti-HIV medications you take to
be less effective. And your strain of HIV could have the same effects on your partner.
ī Where can I find more informationabout HIV prevention?
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Prevention Information
Network (NPIN) provides information about the prevention of HIV infection, other STDs, and
tuberculosis (TB).
If you have questions about HIV transmission, call CDCINFO at 1â800â232â4636 or visit
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/.
Prepared By Amjad Khan
Date : 28/10/2015