Habitat fragmentation occurs when large contiguous habitats are divided into smaller, more isolated patches due to habitat loss. It results from both natural processes like volcanism and climate change, as well as human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and reservoir creation. Habitat fragmentation reduces total habitat area and the interior to edge ratio of remaining patches. It isolates patches, increasing extinction risk for species due to reduced genetic diversity and migration between populations. Smaller, isolated patches also support smaller population sizes that are more vulnerable to local extinction. Habitat fragmentation is thus a major threat to biodiversity.
This research article examines how two endangered plant species in coastal sand dunes, Layia carnosa and Lupinus tidestromii, persist in different successional microhabitats (early vs. late stages). The researchers found both species had higher frequencies in early successional habitats. For L. tidestromii, plants in early successional microhabitats had higher projected population growth rates than those in late successional habitats, primarily due to higher recruitment rates in early successional microhabitats. The results support restoring natural disturbance regimes to allow persistence of endemic plant species in these ecosystems.
1. The study examined the relative influence of local environmental conditions and regional spatial processes on the structure of aquatic plant communities in 98 lakes and ponds across Connecticut.
2. Using statistical analyses like partial canonical correspondence analysis and partial Mantel tests, the study found that aquatic plant community structure reflects both local environmental conditions like pH, water clarity, and depth, as well as regional spatial processes like dispersal.
3. While environmental conditions and spatial processes explained 27% of the variation in the plant community data, local environmental conditions accounted for 45% of the explained variation, and regional spatial processes like dispersal accounted for 40%, suggesting both play a role in structuring aquatic plant communities.
This study examined how local and regional processes structure dragonfly distributions across a habitat gradient with varying pond permanence and top predator types. Through experiments, the study found that habitat specialist dragonflies, which are restricted to permanent lakes, were more vulnerable to invertebrate predators and dispersed and colonized artificial ponds less frequently than generalist species. Additionally, habitat specialists traveled shorter distances than generalists. These results suggest that dispersal limitation plays a key role in restricting the distributions of habitat specialist species, and that predation may reinforce this pattern by excluding specialists from certain habitats. By examining both local predation and regional dispersal, the study provides evidence that species distributions can be shaped by processes operating at multiple spatial scales.
This document summarizes a study examining the relative influence of local vs. regional factors in structuring zooplankton communities across 34 interconnected ponds. Data on zooplankton communities were collected from the ponds over three years. The study found evidence of a metacommunity structure each year. Variation in zooplankton community structure was related to both local environmental factors and the spatial configuration of ponds. However, local environmental variables had a strong influence on community structure each year despite high dispersal rates between ponds. This suggests that even in highly interconnected systems, local environmental conditions can structure local communities.
1. The document discusses key concepts in community ecology including species diversity, guilds, food webs, succession, and landscape dynamics.
2. Species diversity is measured by counting species and their relative abundances. A dominant species is most abundant while a keystone species has a large impact relative to its abundance.
3. Landscape features like habitat fragmentation can create patches that impact species diversity depending on patch size and isolation from other habitats.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms from all sources including ecosystems. It can exist at different levels - species diversity is represented by the number of species in a community, ecosystem diversity describes interactions between species within a location, and genetic diversity is the variation in genetic characteristics of a species. Whittaker divided diversity into three classes: alpha diversity measures species diversity within a community, beta diversity describes differences between communities due to replacement of species, and gamma diversity refers to diversity over a large geographical area. Factors that determine biodiversity include habitat stress, geographic isolation, dominance of a single species, availability of ecological niches, edge effects, and geological history.
Community ecology examines how species interact and relate to one another within biological communities. Ecologists represent feeding interactions through food chains and complex food webs. Organisms are classified based on trophic levels according to their position in the food web. Communities experience natural and human-caused disturbances and undergo succession over time. Some species have outsized impacts on community structure as keystone species, ecosystem engineers, or foundation species. Community ecologists study how communities resist or recover from disturbances.
Eric Olson, Brandeis University
Biodiversity contributes significantly to our resilience and quality of life. Eric Olson addresses the presence of countless non-native species of plants and animals in our cities, how we can take steps to re-establish healthy ecological species relationships one yard at a time, and how our local climate can benefit.
Presented at the Urban and Suburban Carbon Farming to Reverse Global Warming conference at Harvard University on May 3, 2015, organized by Biodiversity for a Livable Climate.
www.bio4climate.org
This research article examines how two endangered plant species in coastal sand dunes, Layia carnosa and Lupinus tidestromii, persist in different successional microhabitats (early vs. late stages). The researchers found both species had higher frequencies in early successional habitats. For L. tidestromii, plants in early successional microhabitats had higher projected population growth rates than those in late successional habitats, primarily due to higher recruitment rates in early successional microhabitats. The results support restoring natural disturbance regimes to allow persistence of endemic plant species in these ecosystems.
1. The study examined the relative influence of local environmental conditions and regional spatial processes on the structure of aquatic plant communities in 98 lakes and ponds across Connecticut.
2. Using statistical analyses like partial canonical correspondence analysis and partial Mantel tests, the study found that aquatic plant community structure reflects both local environmental conditions like pH, water clarity, and depth, as well as regional spatial processes like dispersal.
3. While environmental conditions and spatial processes explained 27% of the variation in the plant community data, local environmental conditions accounted for 45% of the explained variation, and regional spatial processes like dispersal accounted for 40%, suggesting both play a role in structuring aquatic plant communities.
This study examined how local and regional processes structure dragonfly distributions across a habitat gradient with varying pond permanence and top predator types. Through experiments, the study found that habitat specialist dragonflies, which are restricted to permanent lakes, were more vulnerable to invertebrate predators and dispersed and colonized artificial ponds less frequently than generalist species. Additionally, habitat specialists traveled shorter distances than generalists. These results suggest that dispersal limitation plays a key role in restricting the distributions of habitat specialist species, and that predation may reinforce this pattern by excluding specialists from certain habitats. By examining both local predation and regional dispersal, the study provides evidence that species distributions can be shaped by processes operating at multiple spatial scales.
This document summarizes a study examining the relative influence of local vs. regional factors in structuring zooplankton communities across 34 interconnected ponds. Data on zooplankton communities were collected from the ponds over three years. The study found evidence of a metacommunity structure each year. Variation in zooplankton community structure was related to both local environmental factors and the spatial configuration of ponds. However, local environmental variables had a strong influence on community structure each year despite high dispersal rates between ponds. This suggests that even in highly interconnected systems, local environmental conditions can structure local communities.
1. The document discusses key concepts in community ecology including species diversity, guilds, food webs, succession, and landscape dynamics.
2. Species diversity is measured by counting species and their relative abundances. A dominant species is most abundant while a keystone species has a large impact relative to its abundance.
3. Landscape features like habitat fragmentation can create patches that impact species diversity depending on patch size and isolation from other habitats.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms from all sources including ecosystems. It can exist at different levels - species diversity is represented by the number of species in a community, ecosystem diversity describes interactions between species within a location, and genetic diversity is the variation in genetic characteristics of a species. Whittaker divided diversity into three classes: alpha diversity measures species diversity within a community, beta diversity describes differences between communities due to replacement of species, and gamma diversity refers to diversity over a large geographical area. Factors that determine biodiversity include habitat stress, geographic isolation, dominance of a single species, availability of ecological niches, edge effects, and geological history.
Community ecology examines how species interact and relate to one another within biological communities. Ecologists represent feeding interactions through food chains and complex food webs. Organisms are classified based on trophic levels according to their position in the food web. Communities experience natural and human-caused disturbances and undergo succession over time. Some species have outsized impacts on community structure as keystone species, ecosystem engineers, or foundation species. Community ecologists study how communities resist or recover from disturbances.
Eric Olson, Brandeis University
Biodiversity contributes significantly to our resilience and quality of life. Eric Olson addresses the presence of countless non-native species of plants and animals in our cities, how we can take steps to re-establish healthy ecological species relationships one yard at a time, and how our local climate can benefit.
Presented at the Urban and Suburban Carbon Farming to Reverse Global Warming conference at Harvard University on May 3, 2015, organized by Biodiversity for a Livable Climate.
www.bio4climate.org
This document reviews evidence that many organisms have evolved adaptations to survive natural flood and drought cycles in rivers and streams (i.e. the natural flow regime). It identifies three main modes of adaptation - life history, behavioral, and morphological - and discusses how each is related to different components of the flow regime like timing, magnitude, and predictability of floods and droughts. The strength of evidence for adaptations is assessed based on observations, cross-species comparisons, gradients, and experiments. Understanding these adaptations is important for managing biodiversity as human activities have altered most natural flow regimes.
Temperature, moisture, length of photosynthetic period, and nutrient availability affect net primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Primary productivity is typically higher in coastal oceans due to nutrient inputs from land. Primary production fuels secondary production by consumers. There are two main food chains: grazing and detrital, with detrital dominating terrestrial ecosystems. Decomposition returns nutrients to the soil and is influenced by temperature, humidity, and oxygen levels. Biogeochemical cycles circulate essential elements through abiotic and biotic components, and nutrients can be lost through export, harvesting, and fire.
Ecotone and edge effects & ecological successionRoxette Layosa
This document discusses ecotones, edge effects, and ecological succession. It defines an ecotone as the transition zone between two adjacent ecological communities. Edge effects refer to changes in populations or communities that occur at habitat boundaries, allowing for greater biodiversity. Ecological succession is the process by which a biological community evolves over time, occurring through primary succession on new habitats or secondary succession on previously disturbed habitats. Succession proceeds toward a climax community that is stable and balanced for the local climate and soil conditions.
This document discusses community structure and food webs. It provides examples of food webs in arctic and tropical freshwater communities and examines how food web complexity increases with community diversity. The concept of keystone species is introduced, which are species that have a significant influence on community structure despite low biomass. Examples are given of keystone species such as a predatory snail that increases algal diversity and fish that influence midge production. The effects of birds on herbivorous insects are also discussed. Exotic predators can drastically simplify food web structure by collapsing prey populations outside of their evolutionary experience.
The structure of ecological communities is influenced by various factors, including the fundamental and realized niches of species, species interactions, and environmental conditions. Species interactions within communities can be direct, such as competition, or indirect, mediated through other species in a food web. Both bottom-up and top-down controls influence population abundances across trophic levels. Environmental gradients and heterogeneity impact species distributions and community diversity through variations in stress tolerance and competition for resources.
The document discusses several ways that plants and animals have adapted to their environments. It describes how aquatic plants are less rigid than terrestrial plants and how they absorb nutrients. It also discusses the reproduction strategies of aquatic and terrestrial plants. The document then explains how terrestrial plants are more rigid and have more extensive root systems than aquatic plants to help them stand upright and find water and nutrients. It provides examples of how different types of plants reproduce. The document also discusses adaptations of leaf size and shape in response to environmental conditions like sunlight, temperature, and water availability. Overall, the document compares the key adaptations of aquatic versus terrestrial plants.
Genetic aspects of forest fragmentationMADHAB BEHERA
Forest fragmentation involves the breaking up of large contiguous forest areas into smaller patches separated by other land uses like agriculture or development. It can occur naturally through events like fires or climate change, but is often caused by human activities like road building, agriculture, or deforestation. Forest fragmentation has ecological, demographic, and genetic consequences. It reduces habitat quality and connectivity, negatively impacts species populations and communities through reduced densities and increased edge effects, and decreases genetic diversity by isolating populations and reducing gene flow. The smaller and more isolated the fragmented forest patches become, the greater the negative impacts on biodiversity.
Community ecology is the study of the distribution, abundance, demography, and interactions between populations of coexisting species within a community. The structure of a community refers to its diversity, population sizes, appearance, and interactions between species. Ecological succession describes predictable changes in the composition or structure of a community over time and occurs through primary succession in lifeless areas or secondary succession where a previous community was removed.
The document summarizes key concepts in community ecology:
1. Community structure is described by physical appearance, species diversity, and niche structure.
2. Species diversity is influenced by factors like latitude and pollution.
3. The number of species on an island is determined by immigration and extinction rates, island size, and distance from mainland.
4. Species play roles like native, non-native, indicator, keystone, and foundation species that impact community ecology.
This document discusses community ecology and the interactions between species within a community. It defines a community as all the populations inhabiting the same area and interacting with each other and the environment. Relationships between species can include symbiotic relationships like mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and others. Ecological succession is also discussed, including primary and secondary succession, pioneer species, and climax communities.
The document discusses ecosystem structure, including physical structure like vertical and horizontal stratification in forests and oceans, as well as biological structure such as species dominance, diversity, and keystone species. It also covers population characteristics, growth, and factors like natality, mortality, migration, and population pyramids that influence population change over time. Ecosystems are complex systems with constant matter and energy exchange between components.
Garssen et al 2014 Effects of climate-induced increases in summer droughtAnnemarie Garssen
1. The document analyzes the effects of increased summer drought on riparian plant species through a literature review and meta-analysis of 23 studies. It finds that drought duration of over 30 days strongly reduces plant biomass, and durations of over 30-35 days with high drought intensities can reduce seedling survival, especially for poplar and willow seedlings.
2. The analysis also reveals that increased drought rapidly leads to declines in riparian plant species richness and increased presence of drought-tolerant species. Riparian groundwater levels, surface water permanence, and plant traits like root plasticity are the most important factors in determining species responses.
3. The meta-analysis indicates that projected increases in
Intermediate level of disturbance hypothesis (idh)Hotaru Imai
The document discusses the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH), which proposes that diversity peaks at intermediate levels of disturbance, not in completely stable or unstable systems. It explains that high disturbance favors only good colonists, lowering diversity, while low disturbance allows competitive exclusion of all but a few dominant species. Intermediate disturbance maintains the highest diversity as both competitive and colonizing species can coexist. Examples provided are rainforests maintained by storms and coral reefs maintained by hurricanes.
The document discusses several key concepts in community ecology. It defines trophic structure as the feeding relationships between organisms. It also describes primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and quaternary consumers. Bottom-up and top-down regulation models are explained as interacting food chains depicting mineral nutrients, vegetation, herbivores, and predators. Ecological succession is defined as the sequence of community changes after a disturbance, with primary succession occurring on new substrates and secondary succession on previously vegetated areas.
This document discusses approaches to measuring desertification. It reviews previous definitions of desertification and land degradation. It argues that desertification should be measured as a continuum over the long-term using indicators like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) that reflect changes in vegetation cover over time. Measuring desertification spatially at the pixel level and temporally over 15+ years can help account for climate variations and better identify localized degradation and causes. Efforts to combat desertification may be most effective at the local level where land use decisions are made.
The document discusses how community structure is shaped by various factors and species interactions. It defines keystone species as those that have a large influence on community structure through their presence or absence. Examples are provided, such as sea otters in kelp forests - by eating sea urchins, otters prevent the urchins from overgrazing the kelp and destroying the kelp forest habitat. The concept of ecological niches is also introduced, with the idea that two species cannot occupy the same niche indefinitely within a community.
This document defines several key ecology terms: habitat, niche, limiting factors, carrying capacity, and competition. It then provides examples of a gray wolf's niche, explaining that it is a carnivore that lives and hunts in packs and cares for its young. The document notes that most animals produce more offspring than can survive due to limiting factors. It asks why a pond wouldn't become overrun with frogs, implying that limiting factors keep populations in check. Finally, it poses multiple choice questions testing understanding of these terms and concepts.
This document discusses disturbance ecology and different approaches for estimating characteristics of ecological communities, analogous to methods for estimating the number of books in a library. It defines ecological disturbance as discrete events that disrupt populations, communities, and ecosystems. Disturbances are regular, predictable events that species can adapt to, unlike rare disasters. The frequency, location, magnitude, and intensity of a disturbance regime can affect evolutionary adaptations and species diversity within a community.
This document discusses several key concepts related to biological diversity and biogeography:
1. It defines biological evolution as changes in inherited traits over generations and outlines some processes that lead to evolution like mutations, natural selection, genetic drift, and geographic isolation of populations.
2. It discusses factors that influence biodiversity like habitat diversity, species diversity, and environmental conditions. Greater biodiversity is seen in areas with more physically diverse habitats, moderate disturbance, and small environmental variation.
3. It outlines biogeography patterns seen on different continents and islands, explaining how continental drift, isolation, and adaptation to new environments has led to divergent evolution and speciation over time.
threats to biodiversity, conservation of aquatic biodiversity, conservation of terrestrial biodiversity, what is biodiversity, biodiversity of India, conservation of biodiversity
The document analyzes the effects of landscape characteristics on avian biodiversity in two small urban parks in Austin, Texas. Through bird surveys conducted in April 2014, the author found that Shipe Park, which contains a riparian corridor, supported a greater number of species (9 total species) and individuals (94 total) than Bailey Park (6 species, 73 individuals), which lacks a riparian corridor. Both parks contained generalist species that thrive in urban areas, but Shipe Park also contained several specialist species, indicating that the riparian corridor provides additional habitat and resources beneficial for urban biodiversity. The author concludes the study provides insight into how landscape features in urban greenspaces influence the functionality of urban ecosystems.
This document reviews evidence that many organisms have evolved adaptations to survive natural flood and drought cycles in rivers and streams (i.e. the natural flow regime). It identifies three main modes of adaptation - life history, behavioral, and morphological - and discusses how each is related to different components of the flow regime like timing, magnitude, and predictability of floods and droughts. The strength of evidence for adaptations is assessed based on observations, cross-species comparisons, gradients, and experiments. Understanding these adaptations is important for managing biodiversity as human activities have altered most natural flow regimes.
Temperature, moisture, length of photosynthetic period, and nutrient availability affect net primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Primary productivity is typically higher in coastal oceans due to nutrient inputs from land. Primary production fuels secondary production by consumers. There are two main food chains: grazing and detrital, with detrital dominating terrestrial ecosystems. Decomposition returns nutrients to the soil and is influenced by temperature, humidity, and oxygen levels. Biogeochemical cycles circulate essential elements through abiotic and biotic components, and nutrients can be lost through export, harvesting, and fire.
Ecotone and edge effects & ecological successionRoxette Layosa
This document discusses ecotones, edge effects, and ecological succession. It defines an ecotone as the transition zone between two adjacent ecological communities. Edge effects refer to changes in populations or communities that occur at habitat boundaries, allowing for greater biodiversity. Ecological succession is the process by which a biological community evolves over time, occurring through primary succession on new habitats or secondary succession on previously disturbed habitats. Succession proceeds toward a climax community that is stable and balanced for the local climate and soil conditions.
This document discusses community structure and food webs. It provides examples of food webs in arctic and tropical freshwater communities and examines how food web complexity increases with community diversity. The concept of keystone species is introduced, which are species that have a significant influence on community structure despite low biomass. Examples are given of keystone species such as a predatory snail that increases algal diversity and fish that influence midge production. The effects of birds on herbivorous insects are also discussed. Exotic predators can drastically simplify food web structure by collapsing prey populations outside of their evolutionary experience.
The structure of ecological communities is influenced by various factors, including the fundamental and realized niches of species, species interactions, and environmental conditions. Species interactions within communities can be direct, such as competition, or indirect, mediated through other species in a food web. Both bottom-up and top-down controls influence population abundances across trophic levels. Environmental gradients and heterogeneity impact species distributions and community diversity through variations in stress tolerance and competition for resources.
The document discusses several ways that plants and animals have adapted to their environments. It describes how aquatic plants are less rigid than terrestrial plants and how they absorb nutrients. It also discusses the reproduction strategies of aquatic and terrestrial plants. The document then explains how terrestrial plants are more rigid and have more extensive root systems than aquatic plants to help them stand upright and find water and nutrients. It provides examples of how different types of plants reproduce. The document also discusses adaptations of leaf size and shape in response to environmental conditions like sunlight, temperature, and water availability. Overall, the document compares the key adaptations of aquatic versus terrestrial plants.
Genetic aspects of forest fragmentationMADHAB BEHERA
Forest fragmentation involves the breaking up of large contiguous forest areas into smaller patches separated by other land uses like agriculture or development. It can occur naturally through events like fires or climate change, but is often caused by human activities like road building, agriculture, or deforestation. Forest fragmentation has ecological, demographic, and genetic consequences. It reduces habitat quality and connectivity, negatively impacts species populations and communities through reduced densities and increased edge effects, and decreases genetic diversity by isolating populations and reducing gene flow. The smaller and more isolated the fragmented forest patches become, the greater the negative impacts on biodiversity.
Community ecology is the study of the distribution, abundance, demography, and interactions between populations of coexisting species within a community. The structure of a community refers to its diversity, population sizes, appearance, and interactions between species. Ecological succession describes predictable changes in the composition or structure of a community over time and occurs through primary succession in lifeless areas or secondary succession where a previous community was removed.
The document summarizes key concepts in community ecology:
1. Community structure is described by physical appearance, species diversity, and niche structure.
2. Species diversity is influenced by factors like latitude and pollution.
3. The number of species on an island is determined by immigration and extinction rates, island size, and distance from mainland.
4. Species play roles like native, non-native, indicator, keystone, and foundation species that impact community ecology.
This document discusses community ecology and the interactions between species within a community. It defines a community as all the populations inhabiting the same area and interacting with each other and the environment. Relationships between species can include symbiotic relationships like mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and others. Ecological succession is also discussed, including primary and secondary succession, pioneer species, and climax communities.
The document discusses ecosystem structure, including physical structure like vertical and horizontal stratification in forests and oceans, as well as biological structure such as species dominance, diversity, and keystone species. It also covers population characteristics, growth, and factors like natality, mortality, migration, and population pyramids that influence population change over time. Ecosystems are complex systems with constant matter and energy exchange between components.
Garssen et al 2014 Effects of climate-induced increases in summer droughtAnnemarie Garssen
1. The document analyzes the effects of increased summer drought on riparian plant species through a literature review and meta-analysis of 23 studies. It finds that drought duration of over 30 days strongly reduces plant biomass, and durations of over 30-35 days with high drought intensities can reduce seedling survival, especially for poplar and willow seedlings.
2. The analysis also reveals that increased drought rapidly leads to declines in riparian plant species richness and increased presence of drought-tolerant species. Riparian groundwater levels, surface water permanence, and plant traits like root plasticity are the most important factors in determining species responses.
3. The meta-analysis indicates that projected increases in
Intermediate level of disturbance hypothesis (idh)Hotaru Imai
The document discusses the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH), which proposes that diversity peaks at intermediate levels of disturbance, not in completely stable or unstable systems. It explains that high disturbance favors only good colonists, lowering diversity, while low disturbance allows competitive exclusion of all but a few dominant species. Intermediate disturbance maintains the highest diversity as both competitive and colonizing species can coexist. Examples provided are rainforests maintained by storms and coral reefs maintained by hurricanes.
The document discusses several key concepts in community ecology. It defines trophic structure as the feeding relationships between organisms. It also describes primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and quaternary consumers. Bottom-up and top-down regulation models are explained as interacting food chains depicting mineral nutrients, vegetation, herbivores, and predators. Ecological succession is defined as the sequence of community changes after a disturbance, with primary succession occurring on new substrates and secondary succession on previously vegetated areas.
This document discusses approaches to measuring desertification. It reviews previous definitions of desertification and land degradation. It argues that desertification should be measured as a continuum over the long-term using indicators like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) that reflect changes in vegetation cover over time. Measuring desertification spatially at the pixel level and temporally over 15+ years can help account for climate variations and better identify localized degradation and causes. Efforts to combat desertification may be most effective at the local level where land use decisions are made.
The document discusses how community structure is shaped by various factors and species interactions. It defines keystone species as those that have a large influence on community structure through their presence or absence. Examples are provided, such as sea otters in kelp forests - by eating sea urchins, otters prevent the urchins from overgrazing the kelp and destroying the kelp forest habitat. The concept of ecological niches is also introduced, with the idea that two species cannot occupy the same niche indefinitely within a community.
This document defines several key ecology terms: habitat, niche, limiting factors, carrying capacity, and competition. It then provides examples of a gray wolf's niche, explaining that it is a carnivore that lives and hunts in packs and cares for its young. The document notes that most animals produce more offspring than can survive due to limiting factors. It asks why a pond wouldn't become overrun with frogs, implying that limiting factors keep populations in check. Finally, it poses multiple choice questions testing understanding of these terms and concepts.
This document discusses disturbance ecology and different approaches for estimating characteristics of ecological communities, analogous to methods for estimating the number of books in a library. It defines ecological disturbance as discrete events that disrupt populations, communities, and ecosystems. Disturbances are regular, predictable events that species can adapt to, unlike rare disasters. The frequency, location, magnitude, and intensity of a disturbance regime can affect evolutionary adaptations and species diversity within a community.
This document discusses several key concepts related to biological diversity and biogeography:
1. It defines biological evolution as changes in inherited traits over generations and outlines some processes that lead to evolution like mutations, natural selection, genetic drift, and geographic isolation of populations.
2. It discusses factors that influence biodiversity like habitat diversity, species diversity, and environmental conditions. Greater biodiversity is seen in areas with more physically diverse habitats, moderate disturbance, and small environmental variation.
3. It outlines biogeography patterns seen on different continents and islands, explaining how continental drift, isolation, and adaptation to new environments has led to divergent evolution and speciation over time.
threats to biodiversity, conservation of aquatic biodiversity, conservation of terrestrial biodiversity, what is biodiversity, biodiversity of India, conservation of biodiversity
The document analyzes the effects of landscape characteristics on avian biodiversity in two small urban parks in Austin, Texas. Through bird surveys conducted in April 2014, the author found that Shipe Park, which contains a riparian corridor, supported a greater number of species (9 total species) and individuals (94 total) than Bailey Park (6 species, 73 individuals), which lacks a riparian corridor. Both parks contained generalist species that thrive in urban areas, but Shipe Park also contained several specialist species, indicating that the riparian corridor provides additional habitat and resources beneficial for urban biodiversity. The author concludes the study provides insight into how landscape features in urban greenspaces influence the functionality of urban ecosystems.
This document discusses biodiversity issues and loss of biodiversity. It begins by listing the objectives of describing the role of endangered species legislation, biodiversity treaty, and sustainable use of wildlife. It then defines biodiversity and extinction, and describes factors that make some organisms more prone to extinction like small population size and specialized habitat needs. Major causes of biodiversity loss are human activities that destroy habitats and overexploit resources. The document outlines the three levels of biodiversity: genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity. It concludes by discussing the values of maintaining biodiversity for ecosystem services like nutrient cycling that support all life.
Big Idea Biodiversity
Biological Diversity Essay
Bio Diversity Lab
Biological Diversity
Biodiversity and Land Quality Essay
Essay about The Importance of Biodiversity
biodiversity Essay
Essay On Endangered Plants
Biodiversity
Biodiversity Worsheet Bio 280 Essay
The document analyzes patterns of beta diversity in dung beetle communities across multiple spatial scales in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. It finds that:
1) Beta diversity is highest at the local scale among sampling sites and regional scale between the mainland and island, driven by environmental heterogeneity and dispersal limitations respectively.
2) Variation in species composition is most influenced by environmental factors at small scales and spatial factors at larger scales.
3) Altitude is a major driver of species distribution, with composition associated with the altitude gradient at all scales.
This document discusses biodiversity at three levels - species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It notes that species diversity is highest near the equator and in coastal areas with warm sea surface temperatures. Throughout history there have been several mass extinction events that dramatically reduced biodiversity. Currently, the Holocene extinction caused by human activity is reducing biodiversity. The document outlines that each level of biodiversity influences the others, and loss at one level can impact the other levels. Maintaining biodiversity is important for sustaining ecosystem productivity and resilience against disasters.
1) The study analyzed patterns of beta diversity in dung beetle communities across three spatial scales - local (between sites), intermediate (between areas), and regional (between mainland and island) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
2) Beta diversity was highest at the regional scale between mainland and island, followed by the local scale between sites. Beta diversity was lowest between areas.
3) Environmental heterogeneity had more influence on beta diversity at smaller local scales, while spatial factors were more important drivers at larger intermediate and regional scales likely due to limitations in species dispersal abilities.
To summarize, the document discusses broad-scale spatial patterns in biodiversity across the Earth. It notes that biodiversity is distributed heterogeneously, with some areas like tropical forests having high diversity and others like deserts having low diversity. A variety of global patterns have been explored, including hotspots and coldspots of diversity, how diversity varies with spatial scale and environmental gradients like latitude, altitude, and productivity. While species richness is most commonly analyzed, little is known about spatial variation in other measures of diversity. The document focuses on progress in understanding four key areas: latitudinal gradients in species richness, relationships between diversity and energy, relationships between local and regional diversity, and covariation in diversity across taxa.
The document discusses biodiversity loss and its causes and effects. It notes that biodiversity loss refers to the decline in genetic and species diversity within ecosystems and is currently occurring at rates 100 to 10,000 times higher than background extinction rates, threatening up to one million species. The primary drivers are habitat loss, invasive species, overexploitation, pollution, and climate change, exacerbated by human population growth. Biodiversity loss reduces ecosystem services, resilience, and complexity, threatening ecological collapse. Solutions require addressing the underlying causes through conservation policies, sustainable practices, and protection of biodiversity hotspots.
disturbance and diversity in Temperate GrasslandAivy Claire Vios
1) Prairie dogs and pocket gophers disturb soil and vegetation through their burrowing and herbivory activities. This intermediate disturbance creates patchy plant communities with varying levels of grasses, forbs, and shrubs.
2) Species diversity is greatest at intermediate levels of disturbance. Too much or too little disturbance favors either colonizing species or stronger competitors, respectively.
3) While urbanization threatens biodiversity through habitat loss and simplification, some studies find that urban areas can still support significant diversity, depending on the taxonomic group. Bird diversity specifically may peak at intermediate levels of urban land use.
Ecological concepts are introduced and described in the document. The document discusses 7 key ecological concepts:
1) Levels of biological organization ranging from genes to landscapes.
2) The definition of native species and their importance in natural ecosystems.
3) The concept of keystone species that have disproportionate influence on ecosystems.
4) The concept of population viability and extinction thresholds related to amount of habitat.
5) Ecological resilience and the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbance and return to stability.
6) Disturbances as events that cause changes to ecological systems, both natural and human-induced.
7) Connectivity and fragmentation, and their effects on organism movement between habitat patches.
Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity are the three levels that create the complexity of life on Earth. At the genetic level, diversity represents the raw material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species allows a greater ability to adapt to environmental changes. Species diversity is easier to study than the other two levels, as species can be identified in the field and represent distinct roles in an ecosystem. Looking at diversity at the ecosystem level is the most complex, as it involves understanding all the interacting species and environmental components that make up a living community. Maintaining biodiversity at all three of these levels is important for sustaining healthy functional ecosystems.
Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity are the three levels that create the complexity of life on Earth. At the genetic level, diversity represents the raw material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species allows a greater ability to adapt to environmental changes. Species diversity is easier to study than the other two levels, as species can be identified in the field and represent distinct roles in an ecosystem. Looking at diversity at the ecosystem level is the most complex, as it involves understanding all the interacting species and environmental components that make up a living community. Maintaining biodiversity at all three of these levels is important for sustaining healthy functional ecosystems.
The document discusses biodiversity loss and ways to protect forests and biodiversity. It defines biodiversity as the variety of life on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Biodiversity loss refers to the decline in these aspects of life on our planet. The key drivers of biodiversity loss mentioned are deforestation, degradation and loss of natural habitats, and land degradation. The document emphasizes that protecting biodiversity through sustainable land use and preservation of ecosystems is critical to human survival, as we are all part of the same living system.
The matrix, the dominant component in the landscape, is the most ext.pdfangelnxcom
The matrix, the dominant component in the landscape, is the most extensive and connected
landscape type, and it plays the dominant role in landscape functioning. A landscape is
composed typically of several types of landscape elements (usually patches). Of these, the matrix
is the most extensive and most connected landscape element type, and therefore plays the
dominant role in the functioning of the landscape .The characteristics of matrix structure are the
density of the patches (porosity), boundary shape, networks, and heterogeneity . For example, in
a large contiguous area of mature forest embedded with numerous small disturbance patches
(e.g., timber harvest patches), the mature forest constitutes the matrix element type because it is
greatest in areal extent, is mostly connected, and exerts a dominant influence on the area flora
and fauna and ecological processes.
Effect of matrix on metapopulation:
The core conceptual framework of metapopulation theory (Levins 1969) is that with-in-patch
dynamics are influenced not only by local extinction but also by colonization from elsewhere in
the landscape. When the landscape becomes more fragmented, colonization rates are reduced.
Then, within-patch species richness will decline and extinction risk at the scale of the entire
metapopulation will increase.
Matrix affects its communities by the following ways.
(1) altering dispersal and colonization rates, which may be reduced or enhanced, depending on
the characteristics of each species
(2) providing alternative habitat to existing species (for some species matrix habitat may be of
lower quality than the original habitat, while for others it may be of higher quality)
(3) as a source of novel invading species for fragments, as the matrix may provide habitat for
new species.
Holt a researcher studied \"Potential effects of the matrix on communities in patchy
environments \". He predicted that species that were abundant in the common habitat (matrix)
had potential to become more common members of local communities in the sparser habitat
(fragments) than species that did not inhabit the common habitat. This spillover effect had
potential to be important in determining which species make up local communities.
Solution
The matrix, the dominant component in the landscape, is the most extensive and connected
landscape type, and it plays the dominant role in landscape functioning. A landscape is
composed typically of several types of landscape elements (usually patches). Of these, the matrix
is the most extensive and most connected landscape element type, and therefore plays the
dominant role in the functioning of the landscape .The characteristics of matrix structure are the
density of the patches (porosity), boundary shape, networks, and heterogeneity . For example, in
a large contiguous area of mature forest embedded with numerous small disturbance patches
(e.g., timber harvest patches), the mature forest constitutes the matrix element type because it i.
Approaches To Conservation And Sustainable Use Of Biodiversity- A ReviewBrandi Gonzales
This document reviews different approaches for conserving biodiversity and maintaining its sustainable use. It discusses both in-situ conservation approaches, which focus on conserving species within their natural habitats through protected areas and reserves, as well as ex-situ approaches that involve conserving species outside their natural environments in facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, and field gene banks. The document concludes that while in-situ conservation has advantages in coverage and viability, ex-situ approaches are important backups when in-situ conservation is not sufficient. Of all the approaches discussed, ecosystem-based conservation is highlighted as having the most potential due to its holistic nature in mainstreaming conservation.
Marine Biodiversity : A Global Pattern Essay
Biodiversity And Biodiversity
Big Idea Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Impact On Biodiversity
biodiversity Essay
Biodiversity
Biological Diversity
The Importance Of Biodiversity
Essay about The Importance of Biodiversity
Essay On Endangered Plants
Persuasive Essay On Biodiversity Conservation
Reflection Essay On Biodiversity
Biodiversity Loss And Loss Of Species Essay
Biodiversity And Its Effects On The Environment
Essay on Biodiversity
The Study of Biodiversity
Biodiversity And Its Effects On Biodiversity
Biological Diversity Essay
The Importance of Biodiversity
The document discusses biodiversity, which refers to the variety of life on Earth at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. It notes that biodiversity is highest in the tropics and along coasts with warm sea surface temperatures. Species diversity generally increases closer to the equator due to warm climates and high productivity. The document also defines several key terms related to biodiversity, such as genetic diversity, species diversity, species richness, ecosystem diversity, and community diversity.
Biodiversity And Its Effects On BiodiversityBrenda Thomas
The document discusses biodiversity in Florida and the priorities of a potential "Florida biodiversity Czar". The top priorities would be:
1. Focusing conservation efforts on remaining biodiversity hotspots by raising public awareness and obtaining funding.
2. Studying the impacts of climate change and mass extinctions to better protect against species loss.
3. Educating the public on the importance of biodiversity for human survival and implementing agricultural practices that preserve native species.
This document summarizes a study on mammal densities in the Kalahari region of Botswana and how they are impacted by seasons and land use. The study compares mammal densities across four different land use areas - Communal Grazing Areas, Fenced Ranches, Wildlife Management Areas, and National Parks. Previous studies have shown that human activities like livestock grazing can negatively impact wildlife by reducing resources and fragmenting the landscape. The goal of this study was to investigate how spatial and temporal variations in mammal densities relate to different types of human land use. Large and medium herbivores and carnivores were found to be most affected by human activities, while smaller mammals were least affected. Seasonal and regional environmental differences had less impact than the
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
Optimizing Post Remediation Groundwater Performance with Enhanced Microbiolog...Joshua Orris
Results of geophysics and pneumatic injection pilot tests during 2003 – 2007 yielded significant positive results for injection delivery design and contaminant mass treatment, resulting in permanent shut-down of an existing groundwater Pump & Treat system.
Accessible source areas were subsequently removed (2011) by soil excavation and treated with the placement of Emulsified Vegetable Oil EVO and zero-valent iron ZVI to accelerate treatment of impacted groundwater in overburden and weathered fractured bedrock. Post pilot test and post remediation groundwater monitoring has included analyses of CVOCs, organic fatty acids, dissolved gases and QuantArray® -Chlor to quantify key microorganisms (e.g., Dehalococcoides, Dehalobacter, etc.) and functional genes (e.g., vinyl chloride reductase, methane monooxygenase, etc.) to assess potential for reductive dechlorination and aerobic cometabolism of CVOCs.
In 2022, the first commercial application of MetaArray™ was performed at the site. MetaArray™ utilizes statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and multivariate analysis to provide evidence that reductive dechlorination is active or even that it is slowing. This creates actionable data allowing users to save money by making important site management decisions earlier.
The results of the MetaArray™ analysis’ support vector machine (SVM) identified groundwater monitoring wells with a 80% confidence that were characterized as either Limited for Reductive Decholorination or had a High Reductive Reduction Dechlorination potential. The results of MetaArray™ will be used to further optimize the site’s post remediation monitoring program for monitored natural attenuation.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...
Habitat fragmentation
1. Habitatfragmentation is the process by which habitatloss results in the division of large,continuous habitats into
smaller,more isolated remnants.Thousands ofscientific studies now show unequivocal evidence for the impacts of
patch area,edge effects, patch shape complexity, isolation and landscape matrixcontraston communitystructure
and ecosystem functioning.However,striking disparities in the results ofthese studies have raised considerable
debate aboutthe relative importance of differentmechanisms underlying fragmentation effects,and even about the
utility of the ‘fragmentation’ conceptin general.Resolution ofthis debate lies in clear discrimination ofdirectversus
indirectcausal relationships among patch and landscape variables.The m ostimportantrecentadvances in our
understanding offragmentation effects all stem from recognition ofstrong context‐dependence in ecosystem
responses,including spatial context‐dependence atmultiple scales,time‐lagged population declines,trait‐dependent
species responses and synergistic interactions between fragmentation and other components ofglobal environmental
change.
Key Concepts:
Habitatfragmentation is an umbrella term describing the complete process bywhich habitatloss results in the
division of large,continuous habitats into a greater number ofsmaller patches oflower total area, isolated from
each other by a matrix of dissimilar habitats,and is notjustthe pattern of spatial arrangementofremaining
habitat.
Habitatloss and habitatfragmentation are notindependentdrivers ofecological change – habitatloss acts via the
change in habitat arrangement,notindependentlyof it.
Habitatfragmentation is a landscape‐level phenomenon,and patch‐level processes (patch area,edge effects and
patch shape complexity) can only be understood within a landscape context(isolation and matrixstructure).
A dominanteffect of increasing habitatloss is a reduction in patch area, with resulting declines in population
densityand species richness,and significantalterations to communitycomposition,species interactions and
ecosystem functioning.
The habitatedge is not a discrete boundaryline around a patch, it is a fuzzy three‐dimensional zone that
straddles both sides ofthe patch‐matrix boundary, and the intensityof edge influence maybe variable and
asymmetrical around the physical vegetation boundary.
Quantification of edge impactrequires explicitdiscrimination oftwo distinctcomponents ofedge influence:edge
extent (i.e. the distance over which a statistical difference in response can be detected between the matrix and
the patch) and edge magnitude (i.e.the degree of difference in response between the patch interior and the
matrix interior).
Increasing patch shape complexity substantiallyreduces the availabilityof ‘core’ habitatarea unaffected by edge
effects.
Patch isolation reduces population connectivityand reduces the probabilityof population persistence,but
geographic isolation is notan absolute quantityand can only be interpreted in the lightof matrix permeability,the
dispersal traits ofthe species in question and the time‐scale over which effects mightbecome apparent.
Matrix quality and surrounding landscape composition have a dominantinfluence on population dynamics,
species diversityand ecosystem processes in habitatpatches.
Habitatfragmentation interacts stronglywith other components ofglobal environmental change,including species
invasions,land‐use intensification and climate change.
Keywords: connectivity; context‐dependence;edge effects; habitatarea; habitatfragmentation;habitatloss;
isolation;landscape structure;matrixcontrast; patch shape
What is habitat fragmentation and how does it occur?
2. Habitat fragmentation usually occurs because of human activities such as new roads,
parking lots and housing developments. Organisms need their specifichabitat for
survival, and fragmentation is a leading threat to many terrestrial animals.
what are some of the effects of habitat fragmentation?
Fragmented habitats may be subject to the edge effect. ... Also, since habitat
fragmentation breaks the original habitat into smaller, isolated patches, movement
between these patches can become dangerous.
example
Prior to major human activity, Britain had a diverse matrix of habitats, which consisted
predominantly of forests, interspersed with wetlands, grasslands and heath. ... A decrease in
the overall area of habitat is serious enough, but when combined with fragmentation, it can
undermine the integrity of whole ecosystems.
BENIFITS
habitat corridors provide numerous benefits for plants and animals and can play a
critical role for endangered species. Habitat corridors allow movement between isolated
populations, promoting increased genetic diversity. They provide food and shelter for a
variety of wildlife and help with juvenile dispersal and seasonal migrations.
The establishment of additional habitat corridors can also benefit people, with
underpasses or overpasses for wildlife helping to reduce vehicle collisions with large
animals. For example according to State Farm Insurance, the biggest U.S. auto insurer,
there have been 2.3 million U.S. deer collisions in the past two years, up 21 percent
from five years ago. State Farm estimates that deer-vehicle accidents resulted in more
than $3.8 billion of insurance claims and driver costs alone over the past year.
Habitat corridors can also minimize interaction between humans and wildlife by allowing
predators, such as wolves and bears, to hunt for food in other locations, minimizing their
threat to people. The corridors can also serve to minimize wildlife encroachment into
human populated areas during natural disasters such as wildfires or floods.
The many benefits of habitat corridors for both wildlife and humans, coupled with the
prevailing federal support for the preservation of endangered species presents a sound
case for investment in such research initiatives.
https://www.esa.org/esablog/ecology-in-policy/habitat-corridors-help-preserve-wildlife-in-the-midst-of-
human-society/
3. Definition[edit]
The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:
Reduction in the total area of the habitat
Decrease of the interior: edge ratio
Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches
Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat
"fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat, but by creating small, isolated
patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001). Habitat
fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it
covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity.[2]
Natural causes[edit]
Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, and climate
change is found in the fossil record.[1][not in citation given]
For example, habitat fragmentation of tropical
rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but
simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.[1]
Human causes[edit]
Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native plants is cleared for human
activities such as agriculture, rural development, urbanization and the creation
of hydroelectric reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate
fragments. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated
from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result
of slash and burn farming in tropical forests. In the wheat belt of central western New South
Wales, Australia, 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the tall grass
prairie of North America has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation.
Implications[edit]
One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity is by reducing the amount of
suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat
destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat.[3]
Plants and
other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation
because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat.[4]
As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of
species.[5]
Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that
influence their long-term survival.[6]
Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic
diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. Processes that act upon underlying genetic
diversity such as adaptation have a smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face
of environmental change.
Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration. In continuous habitats, migrants have
few barriers to establish themselves in suitable sites. In fragmented habitats however, the separation
between suitable sites disrupts migration, and therefore gene flow, limiting a populations capacity to
supplement the reduced genetic diversity of the remnant populations. With lower
migration, inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of homozygosity increases,
4. facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness of the population
called inbreeding depression.
The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species
biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a
50% biodiversity loss.[7]
Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the
greatest threat to species.[8]
But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the
landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as
fragmentation per se[9]
), has been suggested to be small.[10]
A review of empirical studies found that,
of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences,
abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were
negative.[11]
Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more
than positive effects.[12]
Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small
patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent
size.[11]
Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land
sparing strategies.[11]
Reduced viability[edit]
Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.
Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment[13]
and the relative
contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction
depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features.[14]
Minor
fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected
in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat
is an important cause of species extinction.[13]
Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to
vary asynchronously. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by
immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between
fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are
separated from a source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than
adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue
effect. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of
these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival.[15]
Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to edge effects. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature
and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the
fragment. Fires become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels
rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and
the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a
5. fragment has a different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small
fragments are therefore unfavourable for species which require interior habitat.
Conservation implications[edit]
Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered. The
existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases the
fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists.
Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing
isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible continuous piece of land. In
rare cases a conservation reliant species may gain some measure of disease protection by being
distributed in isolated habitats. This ongoing debate is often referred to as SLOSS (Single Large or
Several Small).
One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or
planting corridors of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join
two fragments.[16]
This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior
habitat.
Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants in order to increase the amount of
interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could
require significant time and effort to restore.
The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being
considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller
animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally
fall under the headings of metapopulations island biogeography.