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h. What are epigenetic changes? How may these contribute to the development of cancer? Describe the mechanism by which methylation of -G-C- sites may contribute to the formation of cancerous cells. i. What are the six hallmarks of cancer, and what enabling trait allows cells to acquire the six hallmarks? Solution Ques-1: What are epigenetic changes? How may these contribute to the development of cancer? Epigenetic inheritance can be defined as the process in which complete heritable phenotypic individual is resulted from chromosomal alterations but there will be no more changes in the DNA sequence followed by differential gene expression of the phenotype. Recent research has illustrated that epigenetic inheritance is involves both mitotically and meiotically. However, mitotic or somatic inheritance is higher because of no reprogramming events of altered chromatin. In meiosis for gametogenesis, a lot of reprogramming events to repair \"alterations in chromatic\" has involved for altered cpG islands in both sperm cells and oocytes result in no inheritance propagation from generation to generation. For instance, Epigenetic alterations can be produced due to the exposure to the environment, in case of mice; dietary nutritional additives can induce gene express of agouti gene, further result in the improper fur color and increased level of cancer growth. Ques-2: Describe the mechanism by which methylation of -G-C- sites may contribute to the formation of cancerous cells. Epigenetic changes in chromatin structure that affects gene expression. The epigenetic changes involves in the viable gene expression inside the cells due to methylated -G-C- sites on DNA with differential pattern finally silencing of large number of genes approximately 550 genes (CpG dinucleotides) chemically methylated and modified to change the gene expression. These events are leading to generation of abnormal phenotypes of cells finally become neoplastic & undergoes metastasis Que-3: What are the six hallmarks of cancer, and what enabling trait allows cells to acquire the six hallmarks? Invasion is mainly due to presence of cell adhesion molecules such as integrins on the cancer cells finally promote the movement of cancer cells to another region. This process is going to connect adjacent cells to tumor cells finally undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition Intravastation is the process in which cancer cells undergoes metastasis to enter into “blood or lymph stream” and these cancer cells secrete metalloprotenases, proteases to degrade basement membrane of the stromal surface for endothelial migration. Sometimes, these cancer cells are going to promote angiogenesis (synthesis of blood vessels) towards them to obtain nutrients Extravasation is the process in which cancer cells are going to undergoes metastasis and “escape from lymphatic vessels or blood vessel” by detaching from endothelium Six hallmarks of cancer: Self sufficiency in generating growth signals, insensitivity .

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going to promote angiogenesis (synthesis of blood vessels) towards them to obtain nutrients
Extravasation is the process in which cancer cells are going to undergoes metastasis and “escape
from lymphatic vessels or blood vessel” by detaching from endothelium
Six hallmarks of cancer:
Self sufficiency in generating growth signals, insensitivity to produce antigrowth signals,
avoiding apoptosis, higher replicative ability, angiogenesis, metastasis
Generation of oncogenes is the main trait responsible for the development neoplastic cells, a
main hallmark of cancer growth

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Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence. A variety of epigenetic mechanisms can be perturbed in different types of cancer. Epigenetic alterations of DNA repair genes or cell cycle control genes are very frequent in sporadic (non-germ line) cancers, being significantly more common than germ line (familial) mutations in these sporadic cancers.

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Answer: Cellular oncogene formation: Carcinogenesis, tumorogenesis or oncogenesis are developed from normal cells into a lethal cancer due to the following mechanisms inside the cell. 1. Point mutation: This mutation induces alteration in cellular DNA sequence through synonymous nucleotide substitution result in normal gene becomes protooncogene finally become oncogene due to chromosomal DNA replication. For example normal Ras protein synthesizing gene become mutant Ras oncogene due to point mutation. 2. Gene amplification: This is the process of abnormal amplification of DNA in chromosomes and generates protooncogenes into oncogenes due to numerous replications of chromosomal DNA in succession. Example is presence of MYC gene family in lung and breast cancer cells due to amplied DNA homogeneously. 3. Chromosomal translocation: BCR-ABL leukemia is the due to chromosomal translocation and meticulous translocation of chromosmomal regions leading to coding of a fusion protein from an oncogene. Ex. Philadelphia chromosome 4. DNA rearrangement: Insertions, deletions, transposition & inversion of nitrogen bases of nucleotide sequences in DNA rearrangement generates cellular oncogenes. These rearrangements are due to exposure of cells to carcinogenic agent 5. Insertional mutagenesis: This type of oncogene development is mainly due to retrovirus as explained below For example: The genetic changes are expected to alter the activity of the gene product --> loss of heterozygosity ---> abnormal phenotype Mutations result in genetic drift, which in turn results in the loss of heterozygosity. This loss of one parental copy of nucleotide gene bases may lead to the lethal and dangerous consequences of the living being in the following of life. This loss or drift may result in the occurrence of cancer (breast cancer) hereditary retinoblastoma, because there may be nonexistence of the functional tumor suppressor gene in the lost region. One parental copy only can be noticed at that lost region there by hemizygosity. But however there is one more functional gene copy inside the genome copy thereby offspring can get resistance proteins synthesis against the mutation induced cancer. If both copies are bad or one copy is become badly due to mutation the remaining gene copy responsible for the tumor growth (the tumor suppressor gene example p53) can be denaturated by another point mutation, result in complete suppression of gene to protect the body. A lot of catastrophic events and consequences may occur with loss of heterozygosity (LOH). Genetic drift results in loss of heterozygosity which may reduce and limit longevity of asexual organisms in a population there by low population size. During intermittent cancer development, usually inactivation of the TSG induced due to the two somatic mutations acting on respective 2 alleles. In contrast, during the familial cancer development merely one somatic mutation is considerably enough to generate inactivation of TSG (p.

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in this assignment you are asked to write a simple driver program and set of functions (maybein a library) that can be performed on a binary search tree. Your program should allow user to insert/delete integer values into the binary search tree along with several other operations on the binary search tree. You can use the code given in slides. But this time your key will be int! Specifically, your program will ask user to enter a command and related parameters (if any) in a loop, and then perform the given commands. Here is the list of commands that your program must implement: * insert *find\' *delete *list inorder *list preorder *list postorder *list levelorder * max * min * height *count * sum *quit As always, make sure you release (free) the dynamically allocated memories if you allocate any memory in your programs. So, before submitting your program, run it with valgrind to see if there is any memory leakage //my proggram in C struct tree_node { int data; struct tree_node *left, *right; } typedef struct nodeT { int key; struct nodeT *left, *right; } nodeT, *treeT; int main(){ while (TRUE) { printf(\"> \"); line = GetLine(); ch = toupper(line[0]); switch (ch) { case \'I\': insert(); break; case \'F\': find(); break; case \'D\': delete(); break; case \'LI\': listInorder; break; case \'LPR\': listPreorder(); break; case \'LPO\': listPostorder(); break; case \'MAX\': max(); break; case \'min\': min(); break; case \'H\': height(); break; case \'C\': count(); break; case \'S\': sum(); break; case \'Q\': exit(0); default:printf(\"Illegal command\ \"); break; } } } nodeT *FindNode(nodeT *t, int key){ while(t !=NULL) { if (key == t->key) return t; if (key < t->key) { t = t->left; } else { t = t->right; } return NULL; } void delete(nodeT **p){ nodeT *target; target=*p; if (target->left==NULL && target->right==NULL) { *p=NULL; } else if (target->left == NULL) { *p=target->right; } else if (target->right == NULL) { *p=target->left; } else { /* target has two children, see next slide */ } free(target); } void listInorder(nodeT *T){ if (t != NULL) { DisplayTree(t->left); printf(“%d “, t->key); DisplayTree(t->right); } } void listPreorder(nodeT *t) { if (t != NULL) { printf(“%d “, t->key); DisplayTree(t->left); DisplayTree(t->right); } } void listPostOrder(nodeT *t){ if (t != NULL) { DisplayTree(t->left); DisplayTree(t->right); printf(“%d “, t->key); } } void intsert(nodeT **tptr, int key){ nodeT*t, *tmp; t=*tptr; if (t == NULL) { tmp=New(nodeT*); tmp->key = key; tmp->left=tmp->right=NULL; *tptr=tmp; return; } if (key < t->key) { InsertNode (&t->left, key); } else { InsertNode(&t->right, key); } } int height(nodeT *t){ if (t == NULL) return 0; else return (1 + maximumof( height(t->left), height(t->right)) ); } int sum(struct tree_node *p){ if (p == NULL) return 0; else return (p->data + sum(p->left) + sum(p->right) ); } Solution 1. /* 2. * Java Program to Implement Binary Search Tree 3. */ 4. 5. import java.util.Scanner; 6. 7. /* Class BSTNode */ 8. cl.

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How does alcohol affect IPSP and Potassium? Why do the ions move? Solution ANS: Entire body system is effected by alcohol consumption. alcohol is taken placed by every cell in organs by through the blood and it results electrolytes imbalance. So potassium levels of the body fluids is affected by electrically conductive ions. The altered body fluid ionic concentration causes ionic imbalances. Functions of Potassium: The nerves function, muscle contraction, hormonal balance and water balance is mainly based on Potassium levels. The imbalance between sodium and potassium ions causes hypertension. It effects ADH hormone levels. The body dehydration is normally prevented by Anti-Diuretic Hormone. After alcohol consumption alcohol suppresses ADH, upset the water balance and potassium ion concentration in cells. IPSP (Inhibitory postsynaptic potential): It is a postsynaptic potential that hyperpolarized and inhibits the responses. it decrease action potentials by moving membrane potential farther from threshold. It is generally results from opening of Potassium or chloride channels. Ions movement after alcohol consumption: The potassium ion move through the membrane more easily than sodium. The ions of the potassium is moved faster than sodium. Serum potassium levels were significantly lower in alcoholic patients. Ionic effect by Beer: The water content in beer is high and the soluble nutrients concentration is low. Beer alcoholic percent impairs normal ADH effected and the water content of beer is retained in body, so its results over fluid load in blood stream. The ion concentration of potassium is decreased and causes hormonal imbalance and thirst. Ions effect by Hard liquor: In Hard liquor the water concentration is low, so less water enters into body. Then the ADH is suppressed by alcohol, and the kidney process high amount of water from blood stream into urine. it leads to raise of potassium ion concentration in blood..

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How has the social change driven the development of new information technologies, such as cell phone, text messaging, movie recommendation software? Solution Information technological innovations (such as cell phone, text messaging, movie recommendation softwarehave changed society in dramatic ways.Technology leads to a social change and development process if used to articulate local needs and and contents.Social changes like the industrial revolution leading to urbanization, the creation of a working class, and so on) have driven the need and development of new technologies. -> Radio and television are perceived as pivotal technologies for the shaping of public opinion. -> Technology used to communicate (cell phone, telegraph) fuelled powerful new industries for the exchange of news and other important information at the national and international level..

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Describe the concept of web accessibility. Thank-you! Solution Web accessibility means that the people with disabilities can use the Web. More particularly, Web accessibility means that people with disabilities can recognize, understand, find the way, and communicate with the Web. This is also helpful to others, including old people with changing abilities due to aging. Web accessibility includes all disabilities that influence contact to the Web, including visual, hearing, and physical and neurological disabilities. Millions of people have disabilities that change their use of the Web. Presently most Web sites and Web software have accessibility difficulties that make it impossible for many people with disabilities to use the Web. A key principle of Web accessibility is to design Web sites and software that are flexible to meet different user needs, preferences, and conditions. This flexibility also helps people without disabilities in certain situations, such as people using a slow Internet connection, people with \"temporary disabilities\" such as a broken arm. The Web is more and more important resource in many ways of life such as education, employment, government, commerce, health care and more. It is necessary that the Web be accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities and help them to actively participate in society. The Web offers the chance of unmatched access to information and communication for many people with disabilities..

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can you help me to solve this. Design a Person class similar to the Coin class defined in this chapter. Then design and implement a driver class called SelectPerson whose main method creates two Person objects, then randomly selects a gender in both to see in which object a female gender is selected two times in a row. Consider the possibility that they might tie. Print the results of each selection and then print the object name which comes up first with the female gender being selected twice, consecutively Solution public class SelectPerson{ public static void main(String []args){ //create two person objects Person p1=new Person(); Person p2=new Person(); //delcare variable to set intiial values int count1=0,count2=0,counter=0; //loop until two consequetive femailes aren\'t listed while(count1<2 && count2<2) { counter++; p1.setGender(); p2.setGender(); //display selection of eahc round System.out.println(\"*******Round \"+counter+\"*****\"); System.out.println(\"Object1 = Gender :\"+p1); System.out.println(\"Object2 = Gender :\"+p2); //check for female occurance if(p1.isFemale()) { count1++; } if(p2.isFemale()) { count2++; } } //display the results if(count1==count2) System.out.println(\"Tie\"); else if(count1==2) System.out.println(\"p1\"); else if(count2==2) System.out.println(\"p2\"); } } //definitin of Person class class Person { //variable to hold gender private int gender; //dynamiclaly set gender public void setGender() { gender=(int)(Math.random()*2); } //check if gender is female public boolean isFemale() { return (gender==1); } //return gender of person object public String toString() { String genderName; if(gender==0) genderName=\"Male\"; else genderName=\"Female\"; return genderName; } }.

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Cephalothorax, 6 pairs of jointed appendages. Aquatic, but comes to shore to mate and lay eggs (spawn). Living fossil. Subphylum _ Class_ Many similar segments. Rounded body. Detritivore and decomposer. Two pairs of jointed legs per segments. Subphylum _ Class _ Deuterostome with 5 parts fused together. No arms. Spines. Elaborate jaws that eat kelp. Phylum _ Class _ Six legs with 4 scaly wings. Undergoes complete metamorphosis. Wings often large and showy. Pollinators. SUBPHYLUM _ ORDER _ Pentaradial symmetry. Arms with tube feet that have SUCKERS. Members of this class eat mussels. Phylum _ Class _ Two papery wings. Includes flies and mosquitos. ORDER_ First appendages are chelicerae, second are pedipalps. Terrestrial animals that include spiders and scorpions. Subphylum _ Class _ Almost entirely aquatic. Undergo ecdysiast. Jointed appendages. Includes Crab, lobsters, and pill bugs. Subphylum _ Class_ Solution 1. The organism here is the Horseshoe Crab. Subphylum: Chelicerata, Class: Merostomata 2. The organism here is millipede. Subphylum: Myriapoda, Class: Diplopoda 3. Sea urchins fit the description. Phylum: Echinodermata, Class: Echinoidea 4.The organism is butterfly. Subphylum: Hexapoda, Class: Insecta 5. Starfish is the organism. Phylum: Echinodermata, Class: Asteroidea 6. Order: Diptera 7. Subphylum: Chelicerata, Class: Arachnida 8. Subphylum: Crustacea, Class: Malacostraca.

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After reading the codes of ethics posted to the USAOnline site please do the following (when you are asked to compare, consider the following: the length and details in each one, the topics covered, what are your thoughts on what is included in each): 1) Compare the Alabama Board of Licensure for Professional Engineers and Professional Land Surveyors (Alabama BELS) with your primary engineering societies Code of Ethics (i.e. if you are a civil it is ASCE, if you are an Electrical it is IEEE, etc.) 2) Compare your primary engineering societies Code of Ethics with ASCE\'s Code of Ethics (if you are a civil compare ASCE with any of the other societies) Solution 1) First topic in Alabama BELS says about conflict of interest and is as follows- This topic is also present in ASCE ethics and is as follows - Now, this is present (highlighted in bold below) in Engineering council of India - code of ethics under article 3 titled Obligation to Maintain High Standard of Personal Behaviour in a Responsible Manner which is as follows - The second article in Alabama BELS is tiltled Qualified by Education and/or Experience. Details as follows: The engineer or land surveyor shall act competently and use proper care in performing engineering or land surveying services for clients or employers and shall act only in fields in which qualified by education or experience as follows: This is present in ASCE under canon 2 tiltles service with competence which says that Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. This is covered in Engineering Council of India ethics code under article 2 named Responsibility to Maintain High Standards of Professional Quality which include the following- Third part in Alabama Bels is related to safeguarding and preservation of the confidences and private information of clients and employers which is not present in ASCE but present in Engineeering council of india(ECI) ethics code. Cannon iii of Alabama BELS is named Confidences of Clients and Employers and is as follows - This is present in ECI code of ethics as under article 3 as 3.9 (Employers’ Business Secrets) which says that Engineers shall not disclose by any means, confidential information of the employer or client, unless otherwise authorized Next in Alabama Bels is titled practice; The engineer or land surveyor shall endeavor to build a practice and professional reputation on the merit of his or her services as follows: (a) The engineer or land surveyor shall not offer, or promise to pay or deliver, directly or indirectly, any commission, political contribution, gift, favor, gratuity, benefit or reward as an inducement to secure any specific professional engineering or professional land surveying work or assignment; providing and excepting, however, that an engineer or land surveyor may pay a duly licensed employment agency its fee or commission for securing engineering or land surveying employment in a salaried position. (b) The engineer or land surveyo.

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A small boy is lost coming down Mount Washington. The leader of the search team estimates that there is a probability p that he came down on the east side and a probability 1-p that he came down on the west side. He has n people in his search team who will search independently and, if the boy is on the side being searched, each member will find the boy with probability u. Determine how he should divide the n people into two groups to search the two sides of the mountain so that he will have the highest probability of finding the boy. How does this depend on u? Solution.

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Address how cooperative binding contributes to SSB function during DNA replication. What is the advantage of such binding for SSB activity? Solution Single-strand DNA-binding protein (SSB) is 178 amino acids long protein, found in E. coli, that binds to single-stranded poly nucleotide strand of double helix DNA and prevents reannealing of poly nucleotide strands and allow various aspects of DNA metabolism: replication, recombination, and repair. As in E. Coli, the DNA replication initiate at Ori site. During initiation, the helicase opens the double stranded DNA into single poly nucleotide strands, eventually the SSB proteins bind to the seperated poly nucleotide strands and prevents reannealing and facilitates sliding of DNA polymerase and DNA replication. Here binding of single SSB promotes massive binding of SSB proteins to the poly nucleotide strand, called cooperative binding. Such cooperative binding facilitates the uninterupted synthesis of new DNA molecules..

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Assembly Code Pep/8 Question Write a Pep/8 subroutine that is equivalent to the following C function int Q2 (int A, int B) {int M, C = 0; M = (A + B)/2; while (M > 0) {C += 3; M--;} return C;} Solution Answer: MIPS Assembly Language Code : L0: push rbp mov rbp, rsp mov DWORD PTR [rbp-20], edi mov DWORD PTR [rbp-24], esi mov DWORD PTR [rbp-8], 0 mov edx, DWORD PTR [rbp-20] mov eax, DWORD PTR [rbp-24] add eax, edx mov edx, eax shr edx, 31 add eax, edx sar eax mov DWORD PTR [rbp-4], eax .L3: cmp DWORD PTR [rbp-4], 0 jle .L2 add DWORD PTR [rbp-8], 3 sub DWORD PTR [rbp-4], 1 jmp .L3 .L2: mov eax, DWORD PTR [rbp-8] pop rbp ret.

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why might bacteria need to alter gene expression when their environment changes? Solution Bacteria need to alter the gene expression according to the changing environment. As bacterial gene is expressed in the form of operons which function according to the regulatory element, which can either be inducer or repressor. If inducer is present in the environment gene expression is promoted as inducer binds with regulator and RNA Polymerase can bind to DNA, while if repressor is present in the environment, gene expression is suppressed. therefore bacteria alter their gene expression according to the change in environment..

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Where is the cell body of the neuron that directly causes SA node cells to depolarize faster? Solution The cell body of the nerve fibres which directly causes the depolarization of Sino Atrial node or SA node is located in the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves of autonomous nervous system. This depolarization is spontaneous because the SA node is responsible for the cintraction of all the other muscles of the heart. Therefore the action potential which is generated at SA node passes down the other pacemeker cells like AV nodes and conduction of impuslse throughout the heart muscles..

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What is the critical F value for a sample of four observations in the numerator and seven in the denominator? Use a one-tailed test and the .01 significance level. can you show step by step of how you got the answer. Solution For a a sample of four observations in the numerator and seven in the denominator using a one- tailed test and the .01 significance level the critical F value is: F(4-1,7-1,0.01) =F(3,6,0.01) =9.780.

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what is the main function and sub-functions of a pen? Solution solution main function - main function of pen is to write anything. sub functions - to stab the eye of the school bully - pens are easily disassembled. Take the outer body and use it as a spitwad shooter - Stylus - Pointer - Trache-tube (artificial airway used in tracheotomies) - Emergency Axel for Bike - Snorkle - Straw - Candle-Holder.

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True or False?? 1 The highest abundance of microbial life in soils appears in the O horizon. 2 Typically, increased oxygenic photosynthetic activity results in a decrease in pH values during the day and an increase in pH values at night. 3 Freshwater represents about 10% of the total water on Earth. 4 Oligotrophic organisms thrive in low nutrient conditions. 5 Establishment of a proton motive force (PMF) is required to generate ATP via substrate level phosphorylation. 6 Siderphores are used to increase availability of manganese in aerobic environments. Solution 1. True 2. False, increased oxygenic photosynthetic activity will increase pH (become more basic) during the day and during the night pH will decrease (become more acidic). 3. False, fresh water accounts for 2.5% to 2.75% of total water on earth. 4. True 5. False, Generation of ATP via substrate level phosphorylation is independent of PMF. ATP is formed by the direct transfer and donation of phosphoryl group. It takes place in erythrocytes as they have no mitochondria. 6. False, Siderphores are iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms used in the bioremediation of iron rich environments..

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