This document discusses genre analysis and style. It begins by defining genre as a type or form of literature or communication event that is associated with particular settings and has organized structures and functions. Genre is seen as a response to social context that achieves communicative purposes. Genres are characterized by staging, belonging to communities of practice, conventional lexico-grammatical features, and flexibility. Genre relations refer to how genres interact as part of genre sets, systems, chains, or networks. Approaches to genre analysis include the ESP school, Sydney school, and New Rhetoric school.
This document discusses discourse and genre. It defines discourse as a group of sentences that link propositions together to form a coherent unit. Genre is defined as a patterned and purposeful type of communication that is part of a culture. The document explains that discourse analysis is a type of genre analysis, and genres have distinguishing structures, purposes, language features and relationships to social contexts. It provides examples of common text genres like narratives, recounts and procedures to illustrate how analyzing genres can help analyze discourse.
Grice's theory of conversational implicatureLahcen Graid
Grice's theory of implicature examines how speakers imply meanings beyond what is literally said through utterances. It distinguishes between what is said, based on literal meaning of words, and what is implicated or suggested. Grice provides an example where a speaker implies something different by saying "he hasn't been to prison yet." His theory also differentiates between conventional implicatures from literal meanings of words and conversational implicatures derived from cooperation between speakers. Grice proposes a cooperative principle and maxims like quality and quantity that speakers generally follow but can flout to generate implicatures. When maxims are flouted, hearers can infer additional intended meanings or implicatures.
The document provides a step-by-step guide for analyzing the style and techniques used in a non-fiction text. It outlines key areas to examine such as the audience, theme, tone, emotion, diction, syntax, organization, perspective and more. Examples are given for each category to illustrate what to look for and how different writing choices can impact the overall style.
The slides contain a short account of the relationship between discourse analysis and interactional sociolinguistics linguistics. They also provide a short account of different approaches to politeness. The influence of Gumperz and Goffman on politeness and facework is highlighted.
The document discusses four major theories of second language acquisition:
1) The behaviorist perspective which focuses on habit formation through practice and reinforcement.
2) The innatist perspective which posits that humans have an innate Universal Grammar that facilitates language learning.
3) The cognitive/developmental perspective which explains language learning through general theories of learning like information processing and interaction.
4) The sociocultural perspective which views language development as arising through social interaction, such as interacting within one's Zone of Proximal Development.
This document discusses the relationship between applied linguistics and language teaching. It defines applied linguistics as the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world language problems. It explores how applied linguistics can positively impact language teachers by informing areas like teaching methods, materials development, and testing. The document also examines how linguistics, applied linguistics, and language teaching are interrelated and how descriptions of language can improve teaching.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
A paedagogical model of english for pakistanLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses the development of English language teaching in Pakistan from the 1980s onward. It notes that English linguistics and literature began to be taught more widely due to efforts by organizations like the British Council. It also discusses the emergence of Master's programs in teaching English as a second language. The document argues for developing a pedagogical model of English for Pakistan that standardizes certain features of English usage based on how Pakistanis commonly use the language. It suggests combining aspects of the acrolect and mesolect varieties of Pakistani English for this standardized model.
This document discusses discourse and genre. It defines discourse as a group of sentences that link propositions together to form a coherent unit. Genre is defined as a patterned and purposeful type of communication that is part of a culture. The document explains that discourse analysis is a type of genre analysis, and genres have distinguishing structures, purposes, language features and relationships to social contexts. It provides examples of common text genres like narratives, recounts and procedures to illustrate how analyzing genres can help analyze discourse.
Grice's theory of conversational implicatureLahcen Graid
Grice's theory of implicature examines how speakers imply meanings beyond what is literally said through utterances. It distinguishes between what is said, based on literal meaning of words, and what is implicated or suggested. Grice provides an example where a speaker implies something different by saying "he hasn't been to prison yet." His theory also differentiates between conventional implicatures from literal meanings of words and conversational implicatures derived from cooperation between speakers. Grice proposes a cooperative principle and maxims like quality and quantity that speakers generally follow but can flout to generate implicatures. When maxims are flouted, hearers can infer additional intended meanings or implicatures.
The document provides a step-by-step guide for analyzing the style and techniques used in a non-fiction text. It outlines key areas to examine such as the audience, theme, tone, emotion, diction, syntax, organization, perspective and more. Examples are given for each category to illustrate what to look for and how different writing choices can impact the overall style.
The slides contain a short account of the relationship between discourse analysis and interactional sociolinguistics linguistics. They also provide a short account of different approaches to politeness. The influence of Gumperz and Goffman on politeness and facework is highlighted.
The document discusses four major theories of second language acquisition:
1) The behaviorist perspective which focuses on habit formation through practice and reinforcement.
2) The innatist perspective which posits that humans have an innate Universal Grammar that facilitates language learning.
3) The cognitive/developmental perspective which explains language learning through general theories of learning like information processing and interaction.
4) The sociocultural perspective which views language development as arising through social interaction, such as interacting within one's Zone of Proximal Development.
This document discusses the relationship between applied linguistics and language teaching. It defines applied linguistics as the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world language problems. It explores how applied linguistics can positively impact language teachers by informing areas like teaching methods, materials development, and testing. The document also examines how linguistics, applied linguistics, and language teaching are interrelated and how descriptions of language can improve teaching.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
A paedagogical model of english for pakistanLaiba Yaseen
This document discusses the development of English language teaching in Pakistan from the 1980s onward. It notes that English linguistics and literature began to be taught more widely due to efforts by organizations like the British Council. It also discusses the emergence of Master's programs in teaching English as a second language. The document argues for developing a pedagogical model of English for Pakistan that standardizes certain features of English usage based on how Pakistanis commonly use the language. It suggests combining aspects of the acrolect and mesolect varieties of Pakistani English for this standardized model.
Code-switching is one of the phenomenon of language which occurs in societies to make the communication more effective and meaningful. But it has also some negative impacts.
Here, we have tried to present all things based on English and Bengali language.
Introduction to Systemic Functional LinguisticsAleeenaFarooq
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an approach to linguistics developed by Michael Halliday that views language as a social semiotic system. In SFL, grammar is seen as a meaning-making resource that evolved to serve social functions. Halliday proposed that languages involve three metafunctions: using language to construe experience, enact social relations, and create coherent texts. SFL analyzes language from both a general semantic perspective as a system of options and a specific perspective as socially constructed texts.
This document provides an overview of the Discourse Historical Approach (DHA) developed by Ruth Wodak. It discusses key aspects of the DHA including that it aims to systematically integrate background information in the analysis and interpretation of texts. The DHA was first developed to analyze the construction of anti-Semitic stereotypes in Austrian political discourse. Key aspects of the DHA discussed include its focus on power relations, ideology, and critique through triangulation. The document also outlines linguistic strategies used in DHA analysis and discusses its conceptualization of discourse, context, and levels of analysis.
The document summarizes key points from Chapter 5 of "How to Teach English" by Harmer about describing language. It discusses how language has meaning in context and serves different functions. It also addresses the elements of language including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Additionally, it covers how meanings can vary depending on forms used and hypothetical meanings from modal verbs and conditional sentences. The document also summarizes sections on words grouping together, text cohesion/coherence, language variables like speaking vs. writing, and register.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of dialect, register, and style. It defines register as varieties of language defined by their social use, such as the registers of scientific or religious language. Dialect refers to varieties according to the user. The document explores the relationships and overlaps between these concepts. It examines factors that influence register, such as formality, topic, and social roles. Models of analyzing registers along dimensions like field, mode, and tenor are discussed. The principles of stylistic variation and how style relates to formality are also summarized.
This document discusses language maintenance and shift. It defines language maintenance as the continuing use of a minority language in the face of a dominant language, while language shift refers to one language displacing another in a community's linguistic repertoire. The document then examines factors that can contribute to language shift, including the prestige of the dominant language, economic pressures, and institutional domains like schools. It analyzes language shift patterns among migrant minorities, non-migrant minorities, and migrant majorities. Finally, it discusses factors that accelerate language shift and ways that minority languages can be maintained, such as through community ties, contact with homelands, institutional support, and positive language attitudes.
Stylistics is a branch of applied linguistics that studies style in texts, especially literary works. It examines language use at the individual and social level. Stylistics has many branches including cognitive, corpus, critical, emotion, feminist, film, formalist, functionalist, historical, multimodal, pedagogical, and pragmatic stylistics that each analyze language through different approaches and contexts.
This document discusses 7 approaches to discourse analysis:
1. Conversation analysis examines the structure and organization of natural conversation.
2. Ethnography analyzes language use within social and cultural contexts through observation and interviews.
3. Corpus-based analysis uses large text databases to study language patterns and variations in genres.
4. Multimodal analysis views communication as involving multiple modes beyond just language.
5. Genre analysis describes conventional language patterns associated with academic and professional settings.
6. Critical discourse analysis critically examines how language relates to power and social inequality.
7. Mediated discourse analysis focuses on how social actions are carried out through discourse within cultural and historical contexts.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
Discourse analysis refers to studying language use beyond the sentence level, including conversational exchanges and written texts. There are several approaches to discourse analysis from different disciplines. These include speech act theory (language as action), conversation analysis (structure of dialogue), interactional sociolinguistics (context and social identities), ethnography of communication (culture and communication), pragmatics (meaning based on context), and variation analysis (linguistic structures in texts). Each approach provides a distinct perspective for analyzing discourse in social contexts.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
The document discusses discourse analysis, which is the study of how sentences form larger meaningful units like paragraphs and conversations. Discourse analysis looks at both the process of communication and how texts are structured beyond the sentence level. It examines topics like the role of intonation, how language changes across cultures, and how choices of grammar like articles and tenses affect discourse structure. Discourse analysis also considers spoken elements like conversations and classroom interactions.
This document discusses language change and how it spreads. It provides three main points:
1) Language changes over time in pronunciation, meaning, and vocabulary. Changes occur due to speaker innovation and are influenced by factors like time, location, and social context.
2) Language changes spread from group to group, style to style, and word to word. Changes originate from both above, which people are aware of, and below, which people are unaware of.
3) Reasons for language change include social status, gender, and interaction between groups. People of higher social status and women often introduce changes, while isolation slows changes. Studying language change involves real-time and apparent-time analysis of usage
The document discusses the concept of transitivity in linguistic analysis. It describes transitivity as a system for capturing experiences in language through the representation of different types of processes. There are six main types of processes: material, mental, behavioral, verbal, relational, and existential. Each process involves participants such as actors, sensors, behaviors, sayers, carriers, and existents. The document provides examples to illustrate each type of process and its typical participants.
Genre analysis examines how language is used in different social and cultural contexts. There are three main approaches discussed in the document: the ESP school, the Sydney school, and the rhetorical genre studies school. The ESP school focuses on describing genres and their structures to inform materials development. The Sydney school analyzes genres using systemic functional linguistics, examining field, tenor, and mode. The rhetorical genre studies school focuses on how genres are acquired, critiqued, and used by students in real contexts. Genre analysis is useful for language pedagogy by helping students understand genres and develop competence in new genres.
Genre refers to major types of literature and communicative events that have recognized structures and purposes. There are three main approaches to analyzing genre: the ESP school focuses on academic genres, the Sydney school emphasizes communicative purpose and staging, and rhetorical genre studies views genres as social actions. While the approaches have differences, they also share similarities in recognizing the social dimensions and purposes of genres. Applying genre theory to pedagogy can help students develop competence in valued genres of their disciplines and communities.
Code-switching is one of the phenomenon of language which occurs in societies to make the communication more effective and meaningful. But it has also some negative impacts.
Here, we have tried to present all things based on English and Bengali language.
Introduction to Systemic Functional LinguisticsAleeenaFarooq
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an approach to linguistics developed by Michael Halliday that views language as a social semiotic system. In SFL, grammar is seen as a meaning-making resource that evolved to serve social functions. Halliday proposed that languages involve three metafunctions: using language to construe experience, enact social relations, and create coherent texts. SFL analyzes language from both a general semantic perspective as a system of options and a specific perspective as socially constructed texts.
This document provides an overview of the Discourse Historical Approach (DHA) developed by Ruth Wodak. It discusses key aspects of the DHA including that it aims to systematically integrate background information in the analysis and interpretation of texts. The DHA was first developed to analyze the construction of anti-Semitic stereotypes in Austrian political discourse. Key aspects of the DHA discussed include its focus on power relations, ideology, and critique through triangulation. The document also outlines linguistic strategies used in DHA analysis and discusses its conceptualization of discourse, context, and levels of analysis.
The document summarizes key points from Chapter 5 of "How to Teach English" by Harmer about describing language. It discusses how language has meaning in context and serves different functions. It also addresses the elements of language including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Additionally, it covers how meanings can vary depending on forms used and hypothetical meanings from modal verbs and conditional sentences. The document also summarizes sections on words grouping together, text cohesion/coherence, language variables like speaking vs. writing, and register.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of dialect, register, and style. It defines register as varieties of language defined by their social use, such as the registers of scientific or religious language. Dialect refers to varieties according to the user. The document explores the relationships and overlaps between these concepts. It examines factors that influence register, such as formality, topic, and social roles. Models of analyzing registers along dimensions like field, mode, and tenor are discussed. The principles of stylistic variation and how style relates to formality are also summarized.
This document discusses language maintenance and shift. It defines language maintenance as the continuing use of a minority language in the face of a dominant language, while language shift refers to one language displacing another in a community's linguistic repertoire. The document then examines factors that can contribute to language shift, including the prestige of the dominant language, economic pressures, and institutional domains like schools. It analyzes language shift patterns among migrant minorities, non-migrant minorities, and migrant majorities. Finally, it discusses factors that accelerate language shift and ways that minority languages can be maintained, such as through community ties, contact with homelands, institutional support, and positive language attitudes.
Stylistics is a branch of applied linguistics that studies style in texts, especially literary works. It examines language use at the individual and social level. Stylistics has many branches including cognitive, corpus, critical, emotion, feminist, film, formalist, functionalist, historical, multimodal, pedagogical, and pragmatic stylistics that each analyze language through different approaches and contexts.
This document discusses 7 approaches to discourse analysis:
1. Conversation analysis examines the structure and organization of natural conversation.
2. Ethnography analyzes language use within social and cultural contexts through observation and interviews.
3. Corpus-based analysis uses large text databases to study language patterns and variations in genres.
4. Multimodal analysis views communication as involving multiple modes beyond just language.
5. Genre analysis describes conventional language patterns associated with academic and professional settings.
6. Critical discourse analysis critically examines how language relates to power and social inequality.
7. Mediated discourse analysis focuses on how social actions are carried out through discourse within cultural and historical contexts.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
This document discusses pragmatics and its relationship to linguistics. It defines pragmatics as the study of meaning as it relates to speakers, addressees, context and knowledge of language use. Pragmatics focuses on utterances within a given context. Unlike grammar, pragmatics allows humans into the analysis and looks at principles rather than rules. It deals with processes rather than products. The document provides several definitions of pragmatics and outlines its distinction from semantics and syntax.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
Discourse analysis refers to studying language use beyond the sentence level, including conversational exchanges and written texts. There are several approaches to discourse analysis from different disciplines. These include speech act theory (language as action), conversation analysis (structure of dialogue), interactional sociolinguistics (context and social identities), ethnography of communication (culture and communication), pragmatics (meaning based on context), and variation analysis (linguistic structures in texts). Each approach provides a distinct perspective for analyzing discourse in social contexts.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
The document discusses discourse analysis, which is the study of how sentences form larger meaningful units like paragraphs and conversations. Discourse analysis looks at both the process of communication and how texts are structured beyond the sentence level. It examines topics like the role of intonation, how language changes across cultures, and how choices of grammar like articles and tenses affect discourse structure. Discourse analysis also considers spoken elements like conversations and classroom interactions.
This document discusses language change and how it spreads. It provides three main points:
1) Language changes over time in pronunciation, meaning, and vocabulary. Changes occur due to speaker innovation and are influenced by factors like time, location, and social context.
2) Language changes spread from group to group, style to style, and word to word. Changes originate from both above, which people are aware of, and below, which people are unaware of.
3) Reasons for language change include social status, gender, and interaction between groups. People of higher social status and women often introduce changes, while isolation slows changes. Studying language change involves real-time and apparent-time analysis of usage
The document discusses the concept of transitivity in linguistic analysis. It describes transitivity as a system for capturing experiences in language through the representation of different types of processes. There are six main types of processes: material, mental, behavioral, verbal, relational, and existential. Each process involves participants such as actors, sensors, behaviors, sayers, carriers, and existents. The document provides examples to illustrate each type of process and its typical participants.
Genre analysis examines how language is used in different social and cultural contexts. There are three main approaches discussed in the document: the ESP school, the Sydney school, and the rhetorical genre studies school. The ESP school focuses on describing genres and their structures to inform materials development. The Sydney school analyzes genres using systemic functional linguistics, examining field, tenor, and mode. The rhetorical genre studies school focuses on how genres are acquired, critiqued, and used by students in real contexts. Genre analysis is useful for language pedagogy by helping students understand genres and develop competence in new genres.
Genre refers to major types of literature and communicative events that have recognized structures and purposes. There are three main approaches to analyzing genre: the ESP school focuses on academic genres, the Sydney school emphasizes communicative purpose and staging, and rhetorical genre studies views genres as social actions. While the approaches have differences, they also share similarities in recognizing the social dimensions and purposes of genres. Applying genre theory to pedagogy can help students develop competence in valued genres of their disciplines and communities.
Discourse analysis examines language use beyond the sentence level and how language is used in social contexts, while text analysis focuses on formal linguistic cohesive devices within written texts. Some researchers use the terms interchangeably, but most agree the distinction is unclear. Discourse analysis is broader in investigating language in use with consideration of context, while text analysis concentrates on linguistic features linking sentences. The field would benefit from abandoning the term "text" in favor of discourse analysis to avoid confusion.
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis and related concepts. It defines discourse as language longer than a sentence that is meaningful and communicates purpose. Discourse analysis examines patterns of language use across texts and their social/cultural contexts. Key areas discussed include the relationship between language and context, text cohesion/coherence, genre analysis involving text conventions and functions, and discourse communities sharing goals/practices. The objects of discourse analysis are defined as coherent sequences of language conveying information.
This document discusses the concept of genre. It defines genre as a type or category of artistic works that is socially and contextually dependent. Genre helps people understand how writing communities work and shows how ideas are discussed within different fields. The document states that genre represents typified human behavior directed toward important social goals. Understanding the tendencies and conventions of different genres makes writing clearer and helps one communicate effectively within their field.
The Social Functions of Advice Genre in Alasiosrjce
This research describes the social functions of advice genre in Alas. The objective of the research
was to examine seven subgenres of advice (sGA) under institutional and non-institutional headings. The
institutional heading consisted of (1) high and higher education, (2) marriage, and (3) profession and the
institutional one refered to (1) circumcision, (2) sickness, (3) death and (4) non formal educationor safety from
accident.The research designwas qualitative with embedded case study as its approach to knowthe Alas’ genre
and ideology. Validity of data analysis involved triangulation technique following the formula: if the meaning
(X) is found, then the expression (Y) is confirmed and if the expression (Y) is found, then the meaning (X) is
confirmed. The results showedthat the social functions of advicein Alas were to give guidance to act and react,
to inform the structural changes of advice, and to guide Alas people in their action and interaction.
A Stylistic Analysis Of Bisson S Bears Discover FireApril Knyff
This document provides an analysis of Terry Bisson's short story "Bears Discover Fire" through a stylistic lens. It utilizes Gerard Genette's narratology theory and Leech and Short's methodology for analyzing fictional works. The analysis focuses on narration, point of view, and other linguistic elements to better understand how the story is constructed and its overall meaning and effect. The study also examines the applicability of the narratology and stylistic models in fictional analysis and aims to contribute to the connection between narratology and stylistic approaches.
This document discusses theories of register and genre in linguistics. It provides context on how register was originally conceptualized as varieties of language associated with different situations. More recently, some linguists have argued that genre better captures the relationship between language and social/cultural factors. Genre is seen as types of texts defined by their social purpose in a community. The document examines debates around how register and genre have been defined and the extent to which they overlap or differ as concepts. It aims to outline developments in how these terms are understood within the functional linguistics framework.
Nuevo presentación de microsoft power pointenriquehra
Discourse analysis is the study of language beyond the sentence level and how it is used in context. It draws from various disciplines like linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Early influential figures included Zellig Harris who studied linguistic elements in extended texts and Dell Hymes who examined speech in social settings. Discourse analysis looks at both spoken interaction and written texts, exploring how parts of conversations and structure of texts relate to their functions and interpretations. It aims to understand language as social action through examining meanings, registers, and patterns in discourse.
Nuevo presentación de microsoft power pointpeterpedrito
Discourse analysis is the study of language beyond the sentence level and how it is used in context. It draws from various disciplines like linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Early influential figures included Zellig Harris who studied linguistic elements in extended texts and Dell Hymes who examined speech in social settings. Models have been developed to analyze spoken discourse in contexts like classrooms and conversations. Discourse analysis also examines written texts and interprets patterns and relationships within and across texts. It aims to understand how language functions in real-world social and cultural contexts.
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its historical development and key concepts. It discusses how discourse analysis examines language use in context beyond the sentence level, analyzing speech acts, conversations, and written texts. The document also covers various models for analyzing spoken and written discourse, how discourse is structured, and how larger patterns in texts are interpreted. Discourse analysis is presented as a broad field that studies both spoken and written language use and how it relates to social contexts.
Groups working in genre theory have different areas of focus, such as the social contexts genres are produced in, linguistic features of genres, or both. Genre theory views genres as social practices that have evolved for achieving communicative goals. There is debate around how genres and text types are defined. A key aspect of genre theory is that it focuses on meaning-making at the whole text level rather than individual language elements. Genre theory also emphasizes that language use is goal-oriented and genres generally move through stages to accomplish a purpose. In the classroom, genre theory risks oversimplifying genres when turned into prescriptive models.
Rhetoric, Stylistics and Discourse Analysis.pptxMaryamAfzal41
Rhetoric, stylistics, and discourse analysis are interrelated fields that analyze language use. Stylistics can be divided into microstylistics, which analyzes literary style, and macrostylistics, which analyzes non-literary language varieties. While stylistics is often applied to literature, it is not confined to literature and is multidisciplinary. Rhetoric is the art of persuasive speaking or writing. Discourse analysis examines language in context beyond the sentence level. These fields overlap in their analysis of linguistic choices and language in social contexts, though they have different focal points.
This document provides an overview of the genre-based model of language. It discusses how this model sees language as a social process and understands texts based on their social context and purpose. The genre-based model analyzes language in terms of context, genre, text, and grammar. Context refers to the situation and culture where language is used. Genre describes the types of texts and their structures. Text is any complete communication, and grammar describes how texts are structured based on genre. The genre-based model aims to connect these elements to understand how language works in social situations.
Academic Culture - Students And Culture ShockShannon Green
This document discusses academic culture shock that students experience when entering university. It notes that each academic discipline has its own culture, norms, and discourse practices that students must learn. This can be challenging for students from a different linguistic or cultural background. The document identifies several factors that contribute to culture shock for non-native English speaking students, including differences in rhetorical styles across languages and genres, varying writing assignments across disciplines, and discipline-specific vocabulary, citation practices, and levels of hedging. Overall, the document examines how moving into an academic community requires students to adapt to a new cultural and linguistic context.
Genre analysis is a process used to analyze types of documents produced in particular discourse communities. It examines similarities and differences in genres' purposes, structures, and language features. Key aspects of genre analysis include identifying the communicative purposes and intended audiences of genres, analyzing their macro-level organizational patterns and sections, and studying language features like verb tense and voice. Genre analysis provides insight into how language is used within important discourse communities and can inform applied linguistics in educational settings.
This document analyzes the use of formal links in selected English poems. It discusses Guy Cook's theory of formal links, which identifies seven types of formal links: verb form, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. The analysis of poems using this framework found that each poem employs at least five formal links. These formal links play important roles such as creating coherence, showing plot progression, emphasizing points, and avoiding ambiguity.
Formal Links in English Selected Poems: A Discourse AnalysisAJHSSR Journal
This document analyzes the use of formal links in selected English poems. It begins with an introduction to discourse analysis and cohesion. Cohesion refers to the relationships between different parts of a text that create unity. Formal links are the linguistic devices that create cohesion, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, repetition, and conjunction. The study examines several English poems to identify the types of formal links used and their roles. It finds that each poem uses at least five formal links that help create coherence and emphasize important points. The analysis contributes to understanding how formal links establish relationships between different parts of poems.
Colonialism involves the domination of one society by another through political and economic control. It originated with European powers colonizing lands across Africa, Asia, and the Americas beginning in the 15th century. There were two waves of colonial expansion - the first involved colonizing the Americas for resources and Christianity, while the second was the "Scramble for Africa" which divided the continent. Settler colonialism differed in that European settlers permanently displaced indigenous populations in places like North America. Colonialism had devastating economic and social impacts through exploitation of resources and people for imperial profit and domination of indigenous cultures.
1. Children begin developing a preference for same-sex playmates around age 3 as their sense of gender develops. This preference increases with age, especially in institutional settings like preschool that provide a large number of peers.
2. Playing in same-sex groups helps children find predictable play styles but also reproduces gender differentiation as boys and girls develop different play styles.
3. Spending time in separate gender peer groups leads boys and girls to form different verbal cultures and understandings of the world, which can increase misunderstanding when they interact. However, the nature and extent of differences depends on the structure of separation in each community.
4. In adolescence, heterosexual pairing becomes central to one's social
Postmodernism first entered philosophical discourse in 1979 with Jean-François Lyotard's book "The Postmodern Condition". Lyotard used concepts from Wittgenstein and speech act theory to account for changes in science, art, and literature since the late 19th century. There is no consensus on when postmodernism began, with suggestions ranging from the mid-1960s to the 1980s. Postmodernism rejects universal narratives and values plurality and difference over essentialism. It challenges notions of objective truth and rationality from the Enlightenment era. Major postmodern thinkers include Lyotard, Baudrillard, Derrida, Foucault, and Barthes, who developed concepts like simulation, deconstruction,
1) Knowledge of the world and social knowledge influence the production and understanding of discourse. Schemas, or mental representations of typical situations, help make sense of information by activating relevant background knowledge.
2) Relevance Theory proposes that hearers interpret utterances by considering how they interact with and update their existing assumptions about the world. For an utterance to be relevant, it must have significant contextual effects by providing new information, strengthening assumptions, or contradicting assumptions.
3) Successful communication depends on shared schemas between speakers. Miscommunication can occur when schemas are mismatched or false assumptions are made about shared knowledge. Stepping outside predictable patterns can also lead to discourse deviations and misunderstandings.
This chapter discusses Louis Althusser's work on the ideological effects of common sense assumptions about language and social identities. It argues that meanings, subject positions, and social situations are socially constructed through discourse but appear natural and obvious. This naturalization is a form of power that constraints thought and society. The chapter explores how analyzing communication breakdowns, cultural differences in discourse, or deliberate interventions can foreground and challenge common sense assumptions.
Multimodal discourse analysis examines how texts use multiple modes of communication like images, video and sound alongside words to create meaning. It considers how design elements contribute to meaning in texts. The approach draws from Halliday's view of language as one of many semiotic resources used in social contexts. It analyzes how texts employ modes to realize ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. Examples of analyses include studies of images in advertisements and newspapers, and frameworks for examining genre and multimodality in films.
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By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
2. Introduction to ‘Genre’
‘genre’ can be traced in far back from the times of Aristotle as A ‘kind’ or ‘form’
; Aristotle used the term in poetics to refer to the major types of literature:
poetry, drama, and epic.
Present era: A particular type of literature.
i.e can be a popular cultural form: soap opera, film noir, western, thriller
In the field of applied Linguistics: different communicative events which are
associated with particular settings and which have organized structures and
communicative functions. For example: business reports, CVs, religious sermons,
political speeches etc.
3. What is Genre?
A term used for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use
language to respond to a recurring situation. (Hyland, 2004)
Genre is generally defined as “a distinctive category of discourse of any type,
spoken or written”(Swales, 1990, p.33) that serves as “responses by speakers or
writers to the demands of a social context” (Johns, 2002, p.3).
Or put it in another way, genres are how things get done and how language is
used to achieve its purpose.
4. Genre?
Genre was defined as a staged goal-oriented social process, emphasizing a
series of phases of meaning making that are designed to accomplish something
through interactions with others. This notion of genre stresses the functional
model of language, revealing the way in which a particular culture manages to
coordinate different and recurrent language resources to construct particular
meanings that are valued within the specific cultural context. Then the concept
of genre has been expanded to include all purposeful uses of language.
(genres are social practices that have developed to enable us to achieve our
goals)
5. Genre and register
Confusing/overlapping terms: ‘genre’ and ‘register’
REGISTER:
Register is a type of language associated with a particular fields of activity or
professions but this language may be used for various purpose (according to
situations);
Genre
Genre may also be associated with a particular fields of activity or professions but
they are specific to communicative purpose.
i.e. lectures attended by students of mathematics, they are also attended by the
students of other fields; lectures therefore are genre but not register.
6. Characteristic features of genre
1. STAGING:
The most easily recognized feature of many genres, they are staged. By staged
we mean that a genre has a specific sequential structure (which it follows more
or less strictly). We can exemplify this if we consider instructions as a genre.
Instructions typically follow a series of stages.
See the example of a guest house kitchen. Each stage in the instruction manual is
organized under three headings:
7. Alishan
International Guest House
I am happy for you to cook and use my utensils but you must follow my rules.
SAY THE KITCHEN FOOD ITEMS SAFETY ISSUES
I am happy for you to cook *Mark your name or *Never put the HOT pots and
and use my utensils but room number on all pans on the countertops as it
you must follow my rules your food items. will burn the tops.
*You make a mess *Once a week the cupboards *Never leave the burners or the
-You clean it up and fridge will be cleaned any toaster on unattended
*You use them will be removed. someone else to watch over
– You wash them your burner or the toaster.
*You wet them *In case of a small grease fire,
– You dry them DO NOT use water, this will
only spread the fire without
*You remove them putting it out. Use the lid of a
– You put them back pot or fire blanket. area.
If you think these rules
are too tough please
do not use the kitchen!
8. 2. Communities of Practice:
Another characteristic feature of genres is that they belong to particular communities
of users (Bhatia, 1993, 2004; Swales, 1990, 2004). Lectures, for example, are engaged in
by teachers and students. News articles involve journalists and newspaper readers.
People who do not belong to such discourse communities or communities of practice
may find it more or less difficult to participate in the relevant genres.
Clearly, it takes a lot of expert knowledge to write an academic article in a given field.
As Bhatia (2004) notes, established members of a given professional community are
likely to have a much better understanding of a genre than apprentices or outsiders.
Outsiders are easily identified as such by members of discourse communities. On the
other hand, certain genres are familiar to most people.
9. 3. Conventionalized Lexico-grammatical
Features
The following of a typical grammatical structure for a particular type of writing
is a further characteristic ascribed to genre called conventionalized lexico-
grammatical feature. (Bhattia, 1993, Swales, 1990).
For example, the use of parallel grammatical structure for many of the
instructions and the use of material process verbs (for example, make a mess,
clean up, use, wash, wet, dry) is easily recognised as a feature of this particular
genre. we can see a certain individual creativity in this particular example of
the instructions genre, for example, the rather quirky heading SAY THE
KITCHEN, and how the instructions in the left-hand column are presented as
oppositional pairs – You make a mess/You clean it up, You use them/You wash
them
10. 4. Genre as a flexible concept
For understanding genre, the flexible rather than static views are required
(Paltridge, 2005).
He argues for genres to be considered as prototypes rather than defining
features: There may be typical ways in which they are organized at the
discourse level, typical situations in which they occur (style), and typical things
they ‘aim to do’. It is not always the case, however, that these will necessarily be
the same in every instance, even though they may be in the majority of cases.
Kress (2003) viewed about the claimed conventional features of genre,
referring to: the fundamental tension around genre, hovering uneasily
between regularity and replicability on the one hand … and the dynamic for
constant flux and change on the other hand.
11. 5 Genre relations
In order to conduct an ample analysis, it is necessary to take into account other genres
with which the target genre interacts (Bhatia,2004; Swales, 2004). We can use the umbrella
term genre relation to refer to the range of different ways individual instances of a genre
can relate to other genres. Devitt (1991) uses the term genre set to refer to a range of text
genres which a professional group uses in the course of their daily routine, for example, a
conference presentation, a poster and a research article in the case of academics.
Bazerman (1994) talks about systems of genres. A genre system, for Bazerman, is a full set
of genres which constitute a complete interaction (for example, a complete exchange of
letters). Raisanen (2002) refers to genre sets and genre systems, but she also considers
genre chains which are chronologically related sequences of genres in a given interaction.
The following is a simplified version of the genre chain for a conference paper, as illustrated
by Raisanen (2002) (also reproduced in Swales, 2004: 19), showing how other genres
precede and follow the conference paper itself.
12. Genre relation
Call for abstracts Conference abstract Review process [Acceptance]
Instructions Conference paper draft Review process [Acceptance]
Revised conference paper Review process Published conference paper Oral presentation
13. Genre relation cont.
Uhrig (2011) brings together the notions of genre set and genre chain (he uses
the term ‘genre network’) in his depiction of the genres an MBA student
needed to participate in, leading up to an assessed oral presentation (Figure 2).
As Figure 2 indicates, before students were able to perform the presentation,
they had to participate in a range of other genres, including reading a business
case, writing a recommendation based on the case, listening to lectures,
reading textbooks and participating in classroom interaction.
15. .
The types of genre involved in the previous figure 2 can be elaborated through following table
16. What genre relations signify?
Each of the four different manifestations of genre relations listed in previous list of genre system highlights
how genres interconnect one to another. This is very important for Genre Analysis, because it demonstrates
how an analysis of a given genre may be missing a lot if it is taken in isolation from other members of its set
of relations. Genre relations are also very important for genre-based pedagogy.
The genre set allows the learner to see the similarities and differences in move structure and linguistic
realization patterns across different genres in a particular field.
The genre system allows the learner to see the similarities and variations in move structure and linguistic
realisation patterns within one particular interaction. The genre chain also focuses on one interaction as it
develops over time through different genres. Disciplinary genres allow the learner to see the full range of
genres, move structure and realisation patterns in which they may be involved at some point in the future.
Furthermore, participation in a set of genre relations may also aid in developing genre knowledge of
individual genres within that set of relations (Tardy, 2009). Working with sets of genre relations is, of course,
closer to real life than dealing with individual instances of genres and may be closer to the target activities of
a language curriculum than dealing with individual genres in isolation.
17. Approaches to genre analysis
Hyon (1996) categorized genre analysis study according to three
approaches or schools:
1. The ESP School
2. The Sydney School
3. The New Rhetoric (Rhetorical Genre Studies (RGS) school
18. 1. The ESP School
This work was started by Swales (1990) and Bhatia (1993), the former investigating academic genres
(primarily the research article) and the latter more interested in business and legal genres. The focus of
this work was pedagogic, the idea being that good genre descriptions could feed into ESP materials
development and pedagogy more generally.
The basic idea is to establish systematic links between communicative purposes and properties of
texts. Communicative purposes, it is argued, are expressed in characteristic ways in texts by particular
discourse communities – the people who regularly participate in a given genre and who share similar
communicative purposes. Communicative purposes are expressed in a staged or sequenced manner, a
text being built up systematically through a series of what are called moves and steps (as we have
already seen in our instructions text (Figure 1), for example. These moves and steps may be obligatory
or optional, may vary in their sequencing, may be repeated, and may be embedded one within another
(Swales, 1990: 58).
19. ESP school
The best-known model of generic staging is Swales’s (1990: 141) CARS (‘Create A
Research Space’) structure, which he posits for academic research article
introductions. The model indicates how scholars support and promote their
contribution to the field by first identifying the field of enquiry and summarising
previous research, then identifying a gap in the existing work, and finally
summarising how they will fill this gap.
20. Three stages of cars model
Move 1. Establishing a territory:
Step 1. Claiming centrality
and/or
Step 2. Making topic generalisation
and/or
Step 3. Reviewing items of previous research.
Move 2. Establishing a niche:
Step 1A. Counterclaiming
or
Step 1B. Indicating a gap
or
Step 1C. Question-raising
or
Step 1D. Continuing a tradition
21. .
Move 3. Occupying the niche:
Step 1A. Outlining purposes
or
Step 1B. Announcing present research
Step 2. Announcing principal findings
Step 3. Indicating research article structure.
22. Model of 7 typical moves
As another example of schematic structure, Bhatia (1993) offers the following model of seven typical
moves for the genre of sales letters:
1. establishing credentials;
2. introducing the offer;
3. offering incentives:
a. offering the product/service;
b. essential detailing of the offer;
c. indicating value of the offer;
4. referring to enclosed documents;
5. inviting further communication;
6. using pressure tactics;
7. ending politely.
23. How to perform a genre in ESP model
Knowing how to perform a genre analysis, according to this ESP view, involves
knowing both its schematic structure, or staging, on the one hand, and the
specific form–function correlations of each stage, on the other.
Someone participating in a genre who does not have a command of these
specific patterns and the limits to their possible variability is quickly recognized
as either incompetent or an outsider, an important consideration from the L2
perspective, where non-native speakers may need to compete with native
speakers in academic and professional contexts.
24. 7 stages Bhatia recommended for genre
analysis (esp cont.)
A focus on context as much as text was always in fact a part of ESP Genre Analysis. Take, for
example, the seven stages Bhatia (1993: 22–36) recommends for Genre Analysis, as follows,
five of which (1, 2, 3, 5, 7) are to do with context.
1. placing the given genre-text in a situational context;
2. surveying the existing literature;
3. refining the situational/contextual analysis;
4. selecting a corpus;
5. studying the institutional context;
6. levels of linguistic analysis;
7. consulting with specialist informants.
25. Application to pedagogy
Application of ESP genre theory has focused on tertiary-level contexts, helping students to
prepare for both undergraduate and postgraduate study. A very popular textbook in universities
throughout the world is Swales and Feak’s (2012) Academic Writing for Graduate Students, a
volume which incorporates many of the findings of ESP Genre Analysis conducted by Swales and
Feak and their collaborators.
26. Swales genre-based pedagogy (cars model)
Swales indicated how a genre-based pedagogy can be developed as part of a task-based approach. He provided an example of the genre of
request letters for academic papers. The learning activity is broken down into four tasks, as follows, based on a set of genre samples (in this
case, request letters).
1. analyzing the similarities and differences in the subject and purpose of the samples;
2. describing what changes might be made to increase the effectiveness of the samples;
3. A. examining extracts of the letters for their lexicogrammatical features and their appropriateness to the
situation;
B. drafting a letter;
4. collecting examples of correspondence received by students in the form of short letters and sharing with
classmates.
Swales’s approach represents a fairly conservative application of genre theory to a concrete pedagogical situation. The procedure is one of
familiarization with the genre and its generic features, consciousness raising vis-à-vis the social and lexicogrammatical dimensions of the genre,
hands-on practice in producing a genre and critical reflection on the whole process.
27. 2. The Sydney school
This approach developed out of work conducted at the University of Sydney, among followers of the
systemic functional linguist (SFL) Halliday, under the leadership of Martin. The Sydney school employs
a methodology derived from Hallidayan SFL, a model which is particularly powerful in identifying the
close correlations between form and function which are a characteristic of particular linguistic
situations.
Halliday posits three parameters of context, or context of situation. These are field, which is the
subject matter and activity type of the text; tenor, which corresponds to the relation between the
participants in the text; and mode, which refers to the rhetorical channel and function of the
discourse – what part the text is playing (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). These three contextual
parameters are associated with their respective macrofunctions, or purposes: ideational (conveying
factual information), interpersonal (expressing the speaker’s attitude and indicating and maintaining
social relations) and textual (creating texts which are coherent and cohesive within themselves and
which fit the situation in which they are created).
28. The Sydney school (diff between Sydney
school and ESP)
Paltridge (2002) highlights an important difference between the Sydney school and the ESP approach to genre,
making a distinction between genre and text type. Genres can be recognized according to external criteria and
are named by their users. Laboratory reports, research articles, lectures and tutorials are examples of genres.
Following Swales (1990), these, or their component parts, are the focus of ESP Genre Analysis.
Text types, on the other hand, are rhetorical modes that follow systematic internal discourse patterns.
Problem–solution, exposition and argument are examples of text types. Text types, referred to as elemental
genres, are the main focus of the Sydney school. Elemental genres, or text types, combine together to create
what are called macro-genres (e.g. laboratory reports, essays) by the Sydney school.
29. Schematic structure of key elemental
genre
Martin (1992) traces the notion of schematic structure back to Mitchell (1957), Mitchell,
although not using the term ‘genre’, specified the following elements for shop transactions as
they are conducted in Libya, where he did his research.
1. salutation;
2. enquiry as to the object of sale;
3. investigation of the object of sale;
4. bargaining;
5. conclusion.
30. Genre work on Schematic structure
Ventola (1987) proposed the following prototypical set of moves for service encounters.
1. greeting;
2. attendance allocation;
3. service bid;
4. service;
5. resolution;
6. goods handover;
7. pay;
8. closing;
9. goodbye.
31. Table: schematic structure of Sydney school
(Hyland 2004)
Genre Stages Purpose
Recount Orientation ^
Record of events ^
(Reorientation)
Provides information about a situation
Presents events in temporal sequence
Brings events into the present
Procedure Goal ^
Steps 1–n ^
(Results)
Gives information about the purposes of the tasks – in title or
intro
Lists activities needed to achieve the goal in correct sequence
Presents final state or ‘look’ of the activity
Narrative Orientation ^
(Complication)
(Evaluation) ^
Resolution
Gives information about characters’ situation
Presents one or more problems for characters to solve
Evaluates the major events for the characters
Sorts out the problems for the characters
Description Identification ^
Aspect n ^
(Conclusion)
Defines, classifies, or generalizes about a phenomenon
Describes attributes of each category of the phenomenon
Sums up the description
Report Problem ^
Reason n ^
(Conclusion) ^ Recommendations
Identifies a problem
Gives possible reasons for or consequences of the problem
Makes suggestions for solving the problem
Presents measures to be adopted as a result of the report
33. Application of Sydney school models
In contrast to ESP, with its pedagogic focus on tertiary-level contexts, Sydney school genre theory
has been developed primarily within the context of Australian primary schools, where it has been
used as a tool for developing a fully fledged pedagogy (Martin & Rose, 2012). It categorised
primary school text types, or genres (Feez, 2002: 54), resulting in five major ‘genre families’ of
stories, histories, reports, explanations and procedures, each characterized by distinctive schematic
structures, which were in turn characterized by typical lexical, grammatical and cohesive patterning
(Martin & Rose, 2008, 2012).
This taxonomy was then developed into a ‘language-based approach to teaching and learning’
(Martin & Rose, 2012; Rothery, 1996) which sought to give less-privileged children access to genres
which are highly valued in the society at large.
A teaching–learning cycle was developed, which drew on Vygotsky’s (1986) dialogic model of
learning, with the teacher providing scaffolding to help learners participate in the joint
construction of learning tasks (Martin & Rose, 2012)
34. 3. Rhetorical genre studies school
the ESP and Sydney schools have more in common with each other than sets them apart. the
ESP and Sydney schools are both linguistic in approach, setting a lot of store on the
relationship between communicative function and linguistic form.
RGS scholars have a much more social way of looking at genre (for example, Freedman &
Medway, 1994), seeing the linguistic orientation of the ESP and Sydney schools as too
deterministic and simplistic.
They argue that The linguistic approach of the ESP and Sydney schools tends to reify genre, in
not allowing for the fact that genres are all the time evolving (see, for example,Bazerman,
1988; Yates, 1989).
35. Key concepts (RGS)
According to RGS, The linguistic approach also fails to take account of the multiple purposes of
genres; of the different purposes of reader and writer or speaker and hearer; and of how
purposes develop as a genre progresses (A. M. Johns, 2003).
The linguistic approach, according to these RGS scholars, also over emphasizes the
conventional nature of form–function relations at the clause level and thereby neglects the
potential for creativity within genres. The linguistic view, furthermore, fails to take account of
the intertextual nature of genres (Bakhtin, 1981, 1986; Kristeva, 1980), the RGS school
contends, of how each unfolding of a genre draws on participants’ previous experience of that
genre and related genres; finally, according to RGS, the linguistic approach fails to take account
of the hybrid nature of genres, of how they intertwine with each other and how some
elements are more easily recognisable as generic than others (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995).
36. Basic notions
RGS focuses more on situational context than linguistic forms and that it emphasizes social
purposes and the actions resulting from these purposes within specific situations (Hyon ,1996).
Miller (1984: 151), one of the most influential members of the RGS group, claims that a
definition of genre should be focused on the action it is used to accomplish rather than its
substance or form. An important outcome of this emphasis on action is that Genre Analysis
methodology needs to be ethnographic rather than linguistic; it must focus on the attitudes,
beliefs, activities, values and patterns of behaviour of the discourse community engaging in the
genre or genres which is/are the focus of study. There is, therefore, a need to go beyond the
mere ‘broad brush-stroke references to the importance of “context of situation” ’ of more text-
oriented researchers.
‘[g]enres are not just text types; they imply/invoke/ create/(re)construct situations (and
contexts), communities, writers and readers (that is, subject positions’.
37. Standardized generic features (RGs)
Fluidity of genre: RGS stress on fluidity of genre. How they are ever changing or manipulated
by their participants.
An important part of an individual’s genre knowledge is thus knowing when and how to follow
the conventions, on the one hand, and when and how to be creative, on the other.
Another feature of genre from the RGS perspective is its reflexivity: how, on the one hand,
society reflects generic structures, because generic structures are there before society can
make use of them, but how, on the other hand, generic structures reflect society, because they
are continually modelled and remodelled by society, their users.
38. Genric features cont.
A final feature of work in RGS we can mention here is how it is often complemented with other
theories, such as activity theory, situated learning theory, theories of distributed cognition,
Giddens’s structuration theory and Bourdieu’s social theory of practice (Artemeva & Freedman,
2006a).
39. Limitation of the Three a=Approaches
1. the conception of language, of the two ‘linguistic’ schools, the ESP school is rather eclectic in
its approach, while the Sydney school works with a well-developed linguistic theory and
descriptive model. The former is easier to apply, while the latter is more detailed, but
requires training in the theory and analysis.
2. On the other hand, the RGS school does not have a model of language, rather it fully
neglects the important focus on language and form.
3. One problem with all of the schools is that the term genre is rather slippery and difficult to
define.
40. Advantages
1. genre-based teaching, following Bhatia (2002), develops the acquisition of generic competence,
‘that is, the ability to respond to new and recurring genres’. In a genre-based approach, learners
develop not only language and discourse skills, but also skills to interpret and apply knowledge
about culture, circumstances, purposes and motives that prevail in particular settings
(Paltridge, 2001)
2. genre-based pedagogy offers the advantage of providing access to genres which have high
cultural capital, that is, genres which are highly valued by society.
3. it allows for the inclusion of the best aspects of other syllabus types, acting as an overarching
framework incorporating grammar, vocabulary, functions and notions, tasks, situation types
and content areas.
41. Advantages cont
Hyland (2004: 10–11) lists seven advantages of genre-based writing instruction (all of which
can also be applied to the other skills of reading, speaking and listening), as follows. Genre
teaching is:
1. Explicit. Makes clear what is to be learned to facilitate the acquisition of writing skills;
2. Systematic. Provides a coherent framework for focusing on both language and contexts;
3. Needs-based. Ensures that course objectives and content are derived from student needs;
4. Supportive. Gives teachers a central role in scaffolding student learning and creativity;
5. Empowering. Provides access to the patterns and possibilities of variation in valued texts;
6. Critical. Provides the resources for students to understand and challenge valued discourses;
7. Consciousness raising. Increases teacher awareness of texts to confidently advise students on
their writing.
42. Further Readings
Bawarshi, A. S. & Reiff, M. J. (2010). Genre: An introduction to history, theory, research and
pedagogy.
West Lafayette, IN: Parlor PressBhatia, V K. (1993). Analyzing genre, Language use in professional
setting. London and New York: London Group
Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press.
Swales, J.M. (1990, 2001). Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.